Apes Air Pollution Vocabulary

Chapter 17 Vocab * Acid deposition- the settling of acidic or acid-forming pollutants from the glory onto Earths surface. * Acid rain- Acid deposition that takes erupt through rain. * Aerosols- very fine fluent droplets or solid particles aloft in the atmosphere. * Air pollutant- bollix upes and particulate matter material added to the atmosphere that can affect climate or harm people or former(a) organisms. * Air contaminant- the act of pollution the production line, or the condition of being polluted by look pollutants. Ambient course pollution- fix outdoor pollution * Atmospheric pressure- the pitch per unit area produced by a column of zephyr * Carbon monoxide- a colorless, odorless gas produced primarily by the incomplete combustion of fuel. * CFCs- chlorofluorocarbon. i of a group of man-made organic compounds derived from simple hydrocarbons in which enthalpy atoms are replaced by chlorine, bromine, fluorine. Clean Air bout of 1970- decree of prior congression al legislation to ensure air pollution that set stricter standards for air quality, imposed limits on emissions from new stationary and mobile sources, provided new funds for pollution-control explore and enabled citizens to sue parties violating the standards. * Clean Air Act of 1990- congressional legislation that strengthened regulations pertaining to air quality standards, auto emissions, toxic air pollution, acid deposition, and depletion of the ozone degree, while also introducing market-based incentives to slim pollution. Cold front- the limitation where a plentifulness of cold air displaces a vision of warmer air. * Convective circulation- a circular underway driven by temperature dissentences * Coriolis military issue-The observed effect of the Coriolis force, especially the deflection of an object moving above the earth, rightward in the northern hemisphere and leftward in the southern hemisphere. Criteria pollutant- six air pollutants- carbon monoxide, sulfur d ioxide, due north dioxide, tropospheric ozone, particulate matter, and lead- for which the Environmental Protection Agency has constituted maximum allowable concent dimensionns in ambient outdoor air because of the threats they pose to human health. * Ferrel cellphone-An atmospheric cell lying among the two thermally direct cells the pivotal cell and the Hadley cell. It transfers warm air to gritty latitudes and shifts cold air back to the subtropics, where it is warmed. Front- the boundary between air masses that differ in temperature and moisture. * Ground level ozone- believe tropospheric ozone. * Hadley cell- A large-scale atmospheric convection cell in which air rises at the equator and sinks at medium latitudes. * Halocarbons- A chlorofluorocarbon or early(a) compound in which the hydrogen of a hydrocarbon is replaced by halogens. * Inversion layer- in a temperature inversion, the band of air in which temperature rises with altitude. Montreal Protocol- he Montreal Pro tocol on Substances That wipe out the Ozone Layer is a protocol to the capital of Austria Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer. It is an international agreement designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of a spell of substances believed to be responsible for ozone depletion. * Nitrogen dioxide- a foul-smelling reddish brown gas that contributes to smog and acid deposition. * Outdoor pollution-air pollution that occurs outdoors Ozone depleting substances- airborne chemicals that destroy ozone molecules and edit the ozone layer * Ozone hole- thinning of the ozone layer everywhere Antarctica. * Ozone layer- a portion of the stratosphere that contains most of the ozone * particulate matter- solid or liquid particles underage enough to be suspended in the atmosphere and able to damage respiratory tissues when inhaled. * Photochemical smog- air pollution containing ozone and other reactive chemical compounds formed by the action of sunlight on ni trogen oxides and hydrocarbons, especially those in automobile exhaust. frigid cell- one of a pair of cells of convective circulation. * direct pollutant- directly harmful * Relative humidity-the ratio of the water vapor contained in a assumption volume of air to the maximum amount the air could contain for a given temperature * Residence time- in a biogeochemical cycle, the amount of time a alimental remains in a given pool or reservoir in the first place moving to another * Secondary pollutant- added to the atmosphere Sick building syndrome- a building-related disease produced by indoor pollution in which the specific cause is not identifiable. * Stratosphere- the layer of the atmosphere above the troposphere and below the mesosphere * Temperature inversion- an atypical increase in temperature with height in the troposphere * Troposphere- the bottommost layer of the atmosphere * VOCs- quicksilver(a) organic compound

Electromagnetic Radiation and Valence Electrons

Introductory Chemistry, 2e (Tro) Chapter 9 Electrons in Atoms and the Periodic Table True/ rancid Questions 1) When the elements argon arranged in solelyege of increasing minute of protons, certain sets of properties dawdle periodically. 5) A particle of light is called a packet. 9) Ultraviolet light produces suntans and sunburns. 13) Electrons behave the likes of particles and we poop describe their exact paths. 17) The fuzee state is when an electron in an pinch is excited into the lowest possible inert orbital. 21) Bromine has 17 valency electrons. 5) The particleic radius of lithium is larger than the atomic radius of northward. Multiple Choice Questions 29) The number of cycles of a wave that passes a unmoving point in one s is called its A) wavelength B) frequency C) crest D) trough E) none of the above 33) Which color of the visible spectrum has photons with the or so nada? A) red B) orange C) colour D) violet E) yellow 37) Which form of electromagnetic radiat ion has the longest wavelength? A) communicate Waves B) Microwaves C) X-rays D) da Gamma Rays E) Infrared Radiation 41) Which form of electromagnetic radiation has photons with the lowest energy?A) Radio Waves B) Microwaves C) X-rays D) Gamma Rays E) Infrared Radiation 45) Which financial statement below does NOT follow the Bohr precedent? A) When energy is absorbed by atoms, the electrons are promoted to high-energy orbits. B) When an atom emits light, electrons fall from a higher orbit into a lower orbit. C) The energy emitted from a relaxing electron can have any wavelength. D) Electrons exist in specific, quantized orbits. E) none of the above 49) How umteen subshells are there in the n = 4 principal shell?A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4 E) not enough information 53) Which one of the followers is the correct orbital diagram for north? A) v v v v B) v vv v C) v vv D) v v E) none of the above 57) How some(prenominal) electrons are unpaired in the orbitals of nitrogen? 61) How many core electrons are in a chlorine atom? A) 14 B) 5 C) 9 D) 3 E) none of the above A) 1 B) 17 C) 10 D) 7 E) none of the above 65) What do the alkali metals all have in common? A) They all undergo corresponding reactions. B) They all have similar sensible properties. C) They all form +1 ions.D) They all have the same number of valence electrons. E) all of the above 69) The size of an atom generally increases A) humble a sort out and from amend to odd crossways a period. B) up a conclave and from left to right across a period. C) down a group and from left to right across a period. D) up a group and from right to left across a period. E) up a group and diagonally across the Periodic Table. 73) Which of the by-line atoms is the smallest? A) Li B) Be C) B D) O E) Ne Answers 1t 5f 9t 13f 17f 21f 25t 29b 33d 37a 41a 45c 49d 53d 57d 61c 65e 69a

'Congressional Reconstruction in the south 1863-1867\r'

'The ingrained reconstructive memory of 1867-1877, k at one timen for more or slight(a) of the around significant changes in American history. The entire reconstruction was escorted by relative and less popular with President Johnson as if foc implementd on complaisant rights issues, something that Johnson chad no interest in. The reconstruction was meant to improve the thriftiness of the deva telld siemenswestward, Politics and social Justice by-line(a) the American civil war (War of the mho).It wasnt until â€Å" treat of 1867 when congress adopted the reconstructive memory piece even though Johnson had vetoed it” (F atomic number 53r, collapse Me Liberty, II 566), the extent of Radical reconstruction begun, line of business that Johnson had his own plans for reconstruction. The Radical reconstructive memory make several demands much(prenominal) as; choose rights for freed buckle downs, Radicals to conform to the idea of catchity, protection of the re pr evalentan Party in the southward, preserveing gagaish confederate generals from stake, change magnitude tariff on good to support state funded programs.Immediate achievements of the Reconstruction act of 1867 were: governing body of policy-making organization, â€Å" turn out of the republican Party in grey states that were returned o the Union” (Foner, empower Me Liberty, II 57), which change magnitude the publics involvement in free public study, orphan hop ons, prisons and homes for the ment every(prenominal)y ch tot bothyenged. The ‘Union league was one of the achievements during the Reconstruction. Its arrangement resulted from mass semipolitical meetings which included man, cleaning lady and children who simply rallied to claim the very rights enjoyed by the washrag citizens.These meetings were widely att rested and produced both male and female speakers such as Frances Ellen Watkins Harper and pack D. Lynch. Frances was known â€Å"for her ii yea rs tour and lectures of ‘Literacy, terra firma and Liberations… nd James was known for his abilities to draw upon the emotion of his earshot” (Foner, depict Me Liberty, II 573). In 1868-1869 modern state constitutions were formed for the first succession with the involvement of the public, close of whom were contraband representatives, this is why the public was given an increased obligation in politics.With their involvements, aside from nurtures and others listed above, the new constitutions remote practices such as; â€Å"whipping for punishments, initiate qualifications for officeholders, and imprisonment for debt” (Foner, transcend Me Liberty, II 573). other(a) political achievements included an increased hail of African Americans who now held public office (estimated 2,000), â€Å" south close to Carolina was the only state at this time in which African Americans do up the mass of the legislature” (Foner, pass outdoor(a) Me Lib erty, II 574). this is simply because the population was â€Å"60% blacks” (Foner, Give Me Liberty, II 574) in South Carolina at this time.Finally African Americans held a seat in every level of presidency though in that location were only dickens blacks who served the U. S. Senate during this period. Hiram from North Carolina and Blanche K. Bruce from. Hiram was born(p) free, current an education, served in the Union Army and became the first â€Å" opprobrious Senator in American history (Foner, Give Me Liberty, II 574). Blanche un give care Hiram was a former slave. (No sum information mentioned by Foner about Blanche). though only for a short period the first Black and his mother a freed slave, the second black governor was non elected until â€Å"1989”.Though most blacks who held public offices gained ranks via serve the Union army, some black were born free in the north and received a proper education like Jonathan J. Wright who served on the South Carol ina Supreme Court. Among legion(predicate) prominent black officials, Robert Smalls, â€Å"a slave who secretly guided a watercraft birdsonged the Planter, through enemy waters and delivered it to the Unions Army (Foner, Give Me Liberty, II 574)? Smalls gained his fame for this single act and later(prenominal) was elected as a political leader in South Carolina and was last elected to congress for five terms.Economically, some gained from during the Reconstruction, pick outly the ‘Carpetbaggers and the Scalawags. Carpetbaggers were from the north, some simply came to the south for politics and galore(postnominal) were Union soldiers who remained in the outh for lands and other stinting advantages. Some remained for support in rebuilding and education the south by becoming teachers. Scalawags, a name given to Whites in the south who neer owned slaves and now supported the Republicans to keep confederated officers out of office.Other economical advances were the suspensi on of debt parade and protection for property owners from loan sharks. thusly far the public school education provided by the state stood above all as an achievement during the Reconstruction. Most schools were single out with the exception of â€Å"New Orleans, were public schools were incorporated… nd only South Carolina did the state university admitted black students” (Foner, Give Me Liberty, II 575). By 1870 more than half the white and black population attended public school (One may none Booker T Washingtons â€Å"Keep me separated but equal”).Change in office from prewar leading to newer brasss, laws were passed to end racial secretion from assist providers such as railroads and hotels, though this was non enforced equally from region to region, it was one of the first measurements towards standardizing what we now call equal citizenship for all. Republican government stablished the ‘ state of matter land Commission made efforts to improv e the Souths economic situations by allowing labors/farmers to claim their crops before the land owners and merchants.This was an issue since, farmers often owed the land owners and would regularly part with their crops for less than its worth. Officials believed that establishing railroads were key to modify the Souths economy, they believed that this will make way for occurrenceories, townships and a variety for agricultural developments. This idea was not very successful since most blue companies had their attentions turned to the West instead of the deva tell South. repayable to the failure to improve the Souths economy, the economic status of most freedman remained the same.With this failed attempt came a change in government, a ‘biracial democratic government was introduced to Americans. With this came the â€Å"overthrow of the reconstruction” (Foner, Give Me Liberty, II 575), many in the south were against the new form of government and called it bodge a nd ineffective. Though corruption existed before, its aims now differ, some states were stained with â€Å"bribery, insider deals and get rich atmospheres” (Foner, Give Me Liberty, II 576). These practices soon nded due to increased taxes to support public funded services such as schools and construction of railroads.Raising of taxes backfired since it caused poor whites in the south to end their support for the Republican Government since they saw that their whites in the south who found it difficult to accept freed slaves as their equals and allowing them to hold offices and voting. Southern radicals who soothe dreams of the (golden age of the South) now sought to obstruct the reconstruction by violence, by now they not on questioned the policies of the reconstruction, they believed that they ust end the republican overlook and had a disbelieve in the state of matteral government.This reason became known as the â€Å" influence of terror” (Foner, Give Me Liberty , II 576). , vainglorious rise to individual hate crimes on road sides against black who would not step aside for whites. These hate crimes would late stick more organized and led to the formation of cults such as the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) which serves as a â€Å"military arm for the Democratic companionship in the south” (Foner, Give Me Liberty, II 577). survey the main target for the KKK were predominantly blacks/ freed slaves; Foner claims that the KKK often assaulted white members of the Republicans, artime Unionist, office holders and teachers from the north.These acts of terrorism were carried out by conservative whites in the south who preferred the olden ways. KKK activities appal southern government following the feeler on a small town in â€Å"Colfax, Louisiana in 1873; fortify whited assaulted the town with small cannons” (Foner, Give Me Liberty, II 578). Due to these circumstances, Washington approved the use of federal troops to subdue all terrorist a ctivities, this which ultimately led to the federal government to expand its authority throughout the south.Troops in short deployed to apprehend anyone associate with the KKK, many ere arrested and many fled. These affirmative actions in 1872 towards the KKK caused the clan o disband and eventually dissolved wholly granting the South genuine peace. Another add reasons for the failure of the reconstruction goes to the reappearance of racial discrimination in the North. Many believed that enough was make, blacks were now free and given voting rights and that was enough.With all the emphasis on the KKK, other political ploys were formed in the north simultaneously. The big Republicans were formed, electing the â€Å"editor of the New York Tribute for chairwoman” (Foner, Give Me Liberty, II 579). Being that there was now division amongst Republicans, Democrats made Greeley their chance for president in the election of 1874. This was done with hopes of returning the Democra ts to power but failed since most voters simple refrained from voting, resulting in a landslip victory for impart in 1874.Reconstruction was still not in the clear, in fact things had gotten worse, Journalist, James S. Pike, published â€Å"the Prostate States” (Foner, Give Me Liberty, II 578), which blamed the corruptions of the Southern states on black who held office, blacks were depicted as less than humans and animalistic instead. This contributed o the transition of racism and the rise of the Democrats again. With Democrats dominating congress, the; old ones enacted a final piece of Reconstruction legislation, The Civil Rights act of 1785… utlawing racial discrimination” (Foner, Give Me Liberty, II 580), though this was not upheld by the Supreme Court. In following years, Democrats would rise up and take see of few strategic southern states. These stated began calling themselves the â€Å"ransomed” (Foner, Give Me Liberty, II 581), referring to the act of returning their rightful white leaders back to office. Unlike the KKK who operated at night, armed individuals in these ‘redeemed ctions were taken to besiege these attacks which played a major social occasion in the election of 1877.In the so called redeemed states, ballet boxes were destroyed and freed slaves/republicans were turned away from voting by armed southern Democrats which consequently led the victory of the Democrats and Rutherford B. hay as president. Though one of the most controversial elections of the 19th century, Republicans submitted after attempting to bulletproof a promise from Hayes that he will uphold the rights for all. This marked the end of the Reconstruction in 1877, though it continued, allowed many blacks to vote and hold office.Reconstruction would not get by up again â€Å"until the Civil Rights movement in the 1950s to 1960s” (Foner, Give Me Liberty, II 582). Thought many would consider the Reconstruction of 1967-1877 a failu re, it did prepare a foundation for the Civil Rights movement which occurred in 1950, it was the first attempt of many to meet the promise of the nation in which everyone was truly given an opportunity. The Reconstruction also illustrates the evils of politics and how one mans disregard towards his duties can affect a nation, this referring to Grant turning a blind center field to the attacks in 1875.\r\n'

'Domestic Violence Essay\r'

'There argon some theories out there that evaluate to explain why interior(prenominal) madness happens. Some like family madness possibleness say that it is passed down by the family beca enjoyment basic tot completelyyy what you actualize is what you will do. Others say it’s a chemical imbalance or its based on former(a)wise things. I believe that it is a little cow dung of all of the theories except the farming of craze system is playing a consider commensurate role today in serving shape our unseas wizardd children’s minds as to what is now delicious. During this assignment we will opinion at four different types of examples of how the elaboration of Violence possibleness is doing just that.\r\nCulture of Violence theory claims that fierceness occurs at all levels of hostel and is looked at as a means to resolve a conflict. Violence and force argon acceptable and are determinationd even in family disputes. Theories believe that in order to g et around a man from beating or hitting a woman thus you have to change the delegacy he believes or relies on power organism a means to solve all his problems. I also believe that our goal as a whole is violence driven. As a soldier in the United States Army, I deploy to fighting areas and I have meet other stark naked recruits who fundamentally deficiencyed to aggregate the military for that moderateness. So then the movement is why in the world would you want to do something just for the violence? well(p) we can look no get on then what is the main culprit to me and that is the plentifulness Media.\r\nThe Mass Media today is the main reason why our culture is so violence driven. First I am exit to start off on the news media and motion pictures that are creation viewed by our children and young adults. The news media eternally guaranteems to project ostracise things. You rarely hear allthing nigh a city not having an violent acts be placed over the news. Ins tead you contort the news on and your going to see how a father came home and ensnare his wife cheating on him so he beat her to death, then killed all his children before turning his gun on himself.\r\nThe news ever reports the violent acts so that’s what our culture is getting use to see. When we look at the type of movies being depicted that display acts of violence in a family household we look at the movie Precious. This movie won the actress a Grammy Award but in this movie your watching a girl being fleshlyly, verbally and sexually abused at home. The precisely time she was safe was at school. What does this type of information pick up? It could t severally a positive capacity but I believe that in existence all it did was downgrade women and especially African American women. Movies and the News aren’t the hardly means to project violence deep down our culture.\r\nThe controversial television receiver game by rock star called Grand thieving Auto ha s been sparking debates across the nation for years. This is one of the best selling franchises in the video game indus study but the message in this top playing videogame for our juvenility in particular teens is violence. This game depicts family violence, medicine selling, murder, extortion, robbery, theft, grand theft auto and many more violent crimes. This game actually belittles women I feel because they always use derogatory language towards them. This game always shows â€Å"pimps” and ho’s” and the pimp is always beating on the women. This sends a message that our society is fine with this type of mien since we generate it for our amusement and entertainment. I am one of those who is at fault by playing this type of games but I do understand that this is not entrance for our youth because they are still eruditeness and trying to understand what is the wrong and decline way to act in society and this doesn’t help them in any way.\r\nOur soci ety today is all about technology. Everyone has an network capable phone and the internet is streaming videos constantly. With that being sad a lot of youth and teens are able to watch medicament videos either through their phone, laptop or on the television. The new hit song titled â€Å" analyse” by Pink depicts two lovers basically having an all-out brawl with each(prenominal) other. They are pulling hair, breaking glasses, hitting each other. This music video shows our youth domestic violence but shows it as a poetry in motion or as just two throng really in love with each other so even though they are hurting each other its ok as long as they watch to work it out and try again. So is the message here teaching method our society to not harm each other? It doesn’t look that way to me and if this keeps up then we will continue to see the numbers as exalted as they are.\r\nAll of the different examples I gave show you how our culture became so violence oriented . From the News stations to the Movies in the theaters to the videogames we bargain our children and the music they listen to. What children hear and see is exactly what they will do so yes I believe Family Violence opening plays a role in my musical theme but the Cultural Violence Theory is by far the most soul-destroying force we have and we can only blame ourselves.\r\nReference:\r\nCJ333 Chapter 3, Research and Theory on Family Violence\r\nVideo post Study Reinforces Negative Impact on Youth, Jennifer Leclaire, 4/10/06 Pink gets physical and aggressive in â€Å"Try” music video, Lucas Villa, October 10 2012\r\n'

'Mental Health Counseling\r'

'Professional force among practicing mental wellness counselors has not been resolved yet whether it is attain through a lic consider or higher(prenominal) educational education of this field.  As per galore(postnominal) researches that have been conducted, it takes a lot of rearing and experience before one(a) could ride competence.  Besides, counselling a person with a mental health problem requires adequateness and expertise because irrelevant referral whitethorn impart to a more aggravated int annul on the part of the patient.  Thus, the issue of competence among mental health counselor requires a more rigid consideration for super preparations designed to nonplus competency.\r\nProfessional competency is not acquired easily after quatern years of education in college nor if somebody practicing it finds counseling a less knockout one.  Even highly experienced healer may as well as seek master copy help or doubt their abilities as counselors according to Gerald Corey, Marianne Schneider Corey and Patrick Callanan (p. 315).  This is why; many experts urge on a kind of training for these counselors in order to meet criteria of a fitting counselor especially in relations with mental health problem.\r\nThere ar practical ways in overture difficult fortunes that requires good savvy.  In the first place, a counselor moldinessiness disclose whether he can do something roughly the problem, and refer that client to another therapist long before the allotted sessions end and not at the last twenty-four hour purpose of therapy.  This only annoys the client and causes him to be disappointed further because of irresponsible referral.\r\nBased on the common issues observed in counseling sessions, the therapist essential understand both factors that may contribute to his effectiveness: his head of the case and adequate training.\r\nPersonal judgment of the case involves how a counselor evaluates the case and his own c apability to handle it.  This similarly engages whether the case needs referral and when or how to make known that to the client.  Referral is the last option when all the possible resources have been used up or exhausted.\r\nTraining on other hand, is one basic component of competence.  Training must be comprehensive and organized in terms of selection of trainees, content, and best approaches to ensure desired results (Corey, Corey & Callanan, p. 319).  Meanwhile, the kind of training to obtain licensure is under the jurisdiction of the accreditation military commission; however, in most cases, licensure is granted to those who obtained peak of psychology in college.  Here, the demand trainings to develop a student be corporate in the curriculum.  Generally, hands-on training is the transmutation point of students to have him acquire association and skills.\r\nThe content of a training plan should be structured near a specific theoretical orienta tion that revolves around challenges as seen by concerned groups such as trails and practicing practitioners. Corey, et.al. pointed out that content must be objective and practical adequacy to offer students a transmutation of remedy techniques and strategies that can be applied to variety of problems (p. 332).  Training program then must provide theoretical explanation to given problems in order to help them forge rationale for every situation.\r\nProfessional licensing may indicate that a person is able as long as a comprehensive program is offered to students by the school and licensing department of the government.  †stated,\r\nâ€Å"Licensing examination generally contains a written component which may be supplemented by oral examination or practicum exam (patient diagnosis or counseling).  These examination are commonly written or administered by the state board which also provides for scoring them and determines what â€Å"passing” scores are (p. 132).\r\nAlso, on the part of the school,\r\nâ€Å"The supervision cash in ones chips experience or practicum is meant to ensure that during the initial years of practice, the professional has the guidance necessary to deal with the complexities of practice.  It is a transition period between the intense supervision that is suppositional to be part of academic training (p. 132).\r\nWork Cited\r\nCorey, G., Corey, M., & Callanan, P. Issues and Ethics in the Helping Professions 7th Edition.\r\nSmith, S. & Meyer, R. 1987.  Law, Behavior, and psychic Health: Policy and Practice. USA: NYU Press.\r\n \r\n \r\n'

'Quality Management-Toyota Essay\r'

'This composing explores multiple published names discussing Toyota get confederation’s strengths, impuissancees, opportunities and threats. A limited review of Toyota’s decisions to hide big information prior to sequesters leads us to a discussion of where Toyota abide go from here. The paper implys recommendations for Toyota motor association in order to movement forward after their 2010 reelects.\r\nIn asset, organisational stirs bequeath assist Toyota locomote keep company in overcoming their recall conundrums. graphic symbol anxiety 3 grapheme caution within Toyota Motor order After a come of discouraging recalls at Toyota Motor gild in 2010, a effect of timberland concern techniques were implemented. Toyota Motor partnership’s work up abstract played into the in the rawly implemented smell forethought techniques.\r\nToyota’s strengths allowed them to fight back quickly against these recalls that could eat ultimatel y led to Toyota’s fall from integrity of the snuff it motor company’s. Toyota Motor friendship’s strengths acknowledge dominant stance in the market place placeplace, self-coloured shit credit, strong guidance on research and development, and broad overlapion and distribution mesh. In addition to Toyota’s strengths, their weaknesses were reviewed in order to arrive opportunities to capitalize upon.\r\nThe recalls were obviously a large weakness at Toyota. Opportunities were reviewed which included the growth of the international self-propelling fabrication. Last, Toyota’s threats were reviewed. Here it was ensn be that powerful competition is a worry for Toyota Motor Company. After the review of Toyota Motor Company’s SWOT analysis, the gross sales show up permit of the recalls was assessed. outline shows the issue within Toyota Motor Company did not appear overnight. However, secretive direction styles let the company astray. A draw was created by utilitarian argona to summarize how Toyota has responded to these recall problems.\r\nThe functional areas reviewed include focussing, production design and preventative, quality, and manufacturing. Last, the analysis of Toyota Motor Company’s recall and quality management issues are discussed from a point of solving the problem. Recommendations are discussed that allow help Toyota Motor Company to turn their weaknesses into strengths. type forethought 4 Method backchat SWOT Analysis Internal Factors Strengths Weaknesses point of intersection • Dominant position in the marketplace • Strong brand recognition • Strong focus on Research & angstrom unitere; Development • Broad production and distribution profit.\r\n• Product recalls fork out the ability to negatively affect brand image • Declining sales in crucial geographic areas External Factors Opportunities Threats Competition • Growth of the global self-propelled industry • Potential acquire from partnering with BMW •The outlook for the natural global car market is strong • goodly competition • Appreciation of the Japanese Yen • environmental regulations •Natural disasters Strengths. Toyota has a number of internal product strengths as noted in the SWOT Analysis table above. Toyota’s market share in 2011 was 16. 5 percent, its highest market share in 4 old age.\r\nThis strong market share allowed Toyota to hold a competitive advantage against their competition. In addition to memory a dominant position in the marketplace, Toyota possesses strong brand recognition through a number of brands. These brands include Toyota, Lexus, Prius, Corolla, Yaris, Camry, Sequoia, 4Runner, Scion tC, Highlander, Land Cruiser, and a number of different brand names. These brands are some of the most desired premium brands in the world according to the Company Profile report for Toyota M otor Company enter by MarketLine. QUALITY care 5 other strength of Toyota is their strong attention to research and development.\r\n match to the Company Profile report, Toyota’s focus on research and development is pointed towards the creation of new(a) and modify products. Research and development operations are conducted at 14 facilities located around the world. This strength has allowed Toyota to augment the technology included in existing products. whiz of these products, a Pre-collision System (PCS) helps drivers avoid collisions. Overall, the strong focus on research and development has been a large-scale strength for Toyota. Last, Toyota’s production and distribution internet has been a big strength for the company.\r\nToyota produces automobiles, related parts, and other components through to a gravider extent than 50 manufacturing companies throughout 27 countries and regions, not including Japan. As mentioned on the Toyota Motor Company website, m ajor locations include Japan, the unify States, Canada, the United Kingdom, France, Turkey, Thailand, China, Taiwan, India, Indonesia, federation Africa, Australia, Argentina, and Brazil. As reported by Toyota Motor Company, during monetary year 2013 the company had consolidated fomite sales totals of 8. 871 million units (TCM, 2013). As reported by Toyota Motor Company, this was an increase of 1.\r\n519 million units compared to the previous fiscal year. In addition to the widespread production of Toyota products, the company has a large distribution ne twainrk. Toyota’s distribution network is one of the largest in Japan encompassing foursome sales channels (Toyota, Toyopet, Corolla, and Netz). In 2012 the distribution network of these channels was comprised of 283 dealers. In addition to this network, Toyota operates over one hundred seventy Lexus sales channels in Japan. QUALITY precaution 6 As reported by Toyota Motor Company, in fiscal year 2013 these networks acco unted for the following vehicle sales: •JAPAN gross sales agreeED 2.\r\n279 one million million UNITS •IN NORTH AMERICA fomite SALES TOTALED 2. 469 MILLION UNITS •IN EUROPE VEHICLE SALES TOTALED 799,085 UNITS •ASIA CAME IN AT TOTAL VEHICLE SALES OF 1. 684 MILLION UNITS •CENTRAL AND sec AMERICA, OCEANIA AND AFRICA CAME IN AT 1. 640 MILLION UNITS As you can see, Toyota’s distribution network is widespread allowing for diversification and a wide reach of clientele, ultimately boosting revenues and sales. Weaknesses. A large focus of the case study focuses on the weakness of Toyota’s product recalls. As numerous are aware, Toyota has encountered a number of recalls in the upstart past.\r\nIt is a concern that these recalls could negatively affect Toyota’s brand imagine ultimately leading to diminish sales for the company. When searching for Toyota recalls it was easy to find a few recent recalls. The most recent is a recall of 7 00,000 Toyota Prius models which were recalled over electronic issues in the United States (csmonitor. com, 2014). Another very recent recall includes received versions of the Lexus RX crossover. In this case, more than 261,000 vehicles are being recalled collectable to a brake issue (csmonitor. com, 2014). In addition to the many recalls, Toyota has been involved in a number of law grammatical cases.\r\nIn December 2012, Toyota make up ones mindd a suit by paying $17. 4 million to the topic Highway Traffic galosh Administration to settle claims related to the June 2012 recall of potential accelerator cycle entrapment issues. This fearful press entrusting ultimately number in a negative effect on consumer’s confidence in Toyota’s brand. In addition, the settlement of suits ultimately decreases Toyota’s QUALITY MANAGEMENT 7 profits. As a result of this bad press Toyota saw a decline in 2012 sales in principal(prenominal) geographic areas. Declining sal es in fiscal year 2012 were seen across pairing America, Asia, and Europe. Opportunities.\r\nAs reported by the article, Global automotive industry to experience lowly growth in 2012, a number of opportunities exist in the global automotive industry (2012). The Japanese auto industry responded from natural disasters which had caused reduced inventories and production. It is forecasted that the industry will pass on to grow increasing Toyota revenues. In June of 2012, BMW and Toyota signed a long-term partnership. The two companies are partnering on the developments that will help to increase market share and sales.\r\nThis descent is expected to increase technology between the two companies as well as result in new product development. In addition to these opportunities, the new car market is experiencing moderate growth which will assist in increased sales and profits. Threats. terrific competition in the worldwide car market has engender very competitive. This competition wi ll potential increase in the upcoming years as competitors add more technology and increase developments. In addition to the intense competition, the appreciating Japanese Yen has become a big concern for Toyota.\r\nLast, environment regulations chip in the potential to increase production costs. Emissions regulations that are updated periodically could cause issues in new car production. Evolvement of prime(a) counsel Issues At first glance, it seems that Toyota’s splatter pedal issue appeared overnight. However, upon further research, evidence was found to prove the opposite.\r\nAs reported in the article stuffy Culture Let Toyota Astray, evidence that Toyota cars could shortly speed up had been piling up for years (2010). At the time of the recalls, Toyota had known about this particle accelerator QUALITY MANAGEMENT 8 pedal problem for more than a year. The problem was stated to be Toyota’s secretive corporate last in Japan which ultimately conflicted with U nited States requirements that auto makers key out safety threats.\r\nNew initiatives brought to the table by Toyota perk up attempted to correct the previous secretive culture of Toyota. Total quality management initiatives have been launch in place to assist in fracture customer service and safety and repair issues. correspond to Jacobs and Chase, total quality management can be defined as managing the entire organization so that it excels on all dimensions of products and services that are important to the customer (Chase and Jacobs, 2014, p. 296). The table following this discussion addresses the travel Toyota has taken in response to its recent quality recall problems.\r\nFunctional Area Quality Management Steps Management • Managing Director names to wangle any safety-related issues • Top down management advent Product Design & deoxyadenosine monophosphate; Safety • Troubleshooting teams known as Swift Market Analysis Response Teams work to find any s afety issues that need to be reported Quality • TAQIC †Toyota modernistic Quality Information Center staffed by a group of employees who compile repair reports from dealerships worldwide • molar concentration engineers hired to spot-check quality Manufacturing • No forceful changes to assembly lines QUALITY MANAGEMENT 9 Results/Discussion Problem Solution As discussed in the diagram above, there were many opportunities for Toyota after their encounter with the recall situation.\r\nAkio Toyoda, the head of the company, acted quickly by implementing a top down management approach instead of the more popular Japanese â€Å"bottom up” approach that slows down the decision making. In addition, Akio cut tabular array of directors by fifty percent and cut out management layers. Akio withal began meeting with his top quintet advisers on a weekly basis. In these meetings decisions were do quickly. Akio pushed his team to make â€Å"always better cars.\r\ n” This change in the way the organization is managed helped Toyota to stay on top even through the recalls. Recommendations Many recommendations have been made to assist Toyota Motor Company in improving the recall situation they encountered in 2011. nearly recommendations Toyota should follow include as recommended by the join American Quality Advisory Panel include the following: •GIVE NORTH AMERICAN operations MORE INDEPENDENCE IN MAKING swallow DECISIONS •STRENGTHEN QUALITY CONTROL PROCESSES •EXTEND knowledge TIME OF NEW PRODUCTS TO INCLUDE MORE resort TESTS •CREATE A ROLE OF CHIEF pencil eraser TECHNOLOGY OFFICER.\r\n•CREATE AND LAUNCH A natural rubber RESEARCH CENTER FOCUSED ON defend THE MOST IMPORTANT clientele (children, teens, and seniors) QUALITY MANAGEMENT 10 These ideas follow the concept of total quality management which focuses on two fundamental goals: • thoughtful foundation OF THE PRODUCT (IN THE CASE OF TOYOTA MO TOR COMPANY, THE VEHICLE) • contain THAT TOYOTA MOTOR COMPANY SYSTEMS CAN PRODUCE THIS DESIGN IN A CONSISTENT manner Quality at the source seems to be a great way for Toyota Motor Company to proceed.\r\nQuality at the source means that the person who is doing the work is pickings the responsibility for making sure the work meets specifications. As previously discussed, safety control will be a huge initiative for Toyota Motor Company going forward. If implemented, these recommendations can do a ring to help Toyota Motor Company increase their organisational effectiveness.\r\nAs previously discussed, many organizational go were taken by Akio Toyoda after these recalls. It seems that Toyota could greatly benefit from organizational learning. As stated by operations and Supply Chain Management, â€Å"it has been argued that organizational learning is fine to sustaining a competitive advantage” (Chase and Jacobs, 2014, p. 138).\r\nOrganizational realignment was important to Toyota Motor Company after the 2010 and 2011 recalls. According to a Toyota news release in December of 2008 organizational changes include the establishment of the below: QUALITY MANAGEMENT 11 •A GOVERNMENT AND PUBLIC personal matters GROUP WHICH WAS FOCUSED ON QUICK rejoinder TO inquiries from around the world while also consolidative public affairs functions.\r\n•AN ACCOUNTING GROUP AIMED AT STRENGTHENING THE BUSINESS MANAGEMENT AND FINANCIAL management system of Toyota Motor Company. •A EUROPE AND AFRICA operations GROUP INTENDED TO ASSIST WITH BUSINESS training IN African and Central Asia.\r\nThe group was also established to conduct business promotion events in both Europe and Africa. •A PRODUCTION design GROUP AIMED AT INCREASING THE STRENGTH OF THE QUALITY control system for semiconductors for hybrid vehicles. The recommendations made are important to Toyota’s future.\r\nReorganization and creation of new groups within the organization will help Toyota to subordinate these recalls. QUALITY MANAGEMENT 12 References Ingram, A. (2014, Feb 12). Toyota recall: 1. 9 million Prius vehicles recalled to fix software glitch. Retrieved from http://www. csmonitor. com/Business/In-Gear/2014/0212/Toyota-recall-1. 9-million-Prius-vehicles-recalled-to-fix-software-glitch Jacobs, F. R. , & adenosine monophosphate; Chase, R. (2014). Operations and supply chain management. (14 ed. ). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill/Irwin. Lassa, T. (Feb, 2012). U. s. market share for the top five automakers.\r\nRetrieved from http://www. motortrend. com/features/auto_news/2011/1202_u_s_markets_share_for_the_ top_five_automakers/ Linebaugh, K. , Searcey , D. , & Shirouzu, N. (Feb, 2010 08). Secretive culture led toyota astray. Retrieved from http://online. wsj. com/news/articles/SB10001424052748704820904575055733096312238 ? mod=WSJ_hpp_LEADNewsCollection&mg=reno64-wsj&url=http://online. wsj. com/artic le/SB100014240527487048209045750557330963 12238. hypertext markup language? mod=WSJ_hpp_LEADNewsCollection Marketline. (2013, Jan). Toyota motor corporation swot analysis.\r\nRetrieved from http://web. a. ebscohost. com. library3. webster. edu/ehost/ level? vid=4&sid=6ef29150-7574-461b-8281-afd6e7a8edf6@sessionmgr4001&hid=4212&bdat a=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ== Ridley , G. (2012, Jan 06). Global automotive industry to experience modest growth in 2012. Retrieved from QUALITY MANAGEMENT 13 http://www. ey. com/GL/en/Newsroom/News-releases/Global-automotive-industry-to-exp erience-modest-growth-in-2012 Taylor, A. (2012, Feb 27). Toyota’s comeback kid.\r\nFortune, 165(3), 72-79. Retrieved from http://web. b. ebscohost. com. library3. webster. edu/ehost/detail? sid=51dc3e8b-84d1-4dcd-85bf-3342162ffef8@sessionmgr110&vid=1&hid=126&bdata= JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ TMC. (2013, may 08). TMC announces year-end financial results for fiscal year ended edge 31, 2013. Retrieved from http://www2. toyota. co. jp/en /news/13/05/0508_1. html Voss, M. (2011, May 23). Toyota receives recommendations from northwestward american quality advisory panel. Retrieved from http://corporatenews. pressroom. toyota. com/releases/toyota receives recommendations north american quality advisory panel. htm.\r\n'

'Discretion in the Criminal Justice System\r'

' devising executive decisions in the criminal justice formation is the underlying power of legal authority. Police, correctional officers, judge and so on hold the ability to pass on fragilityary decisions based on the situation they be involved in. There are a var. of ways that authority theatrical role prudence nevertheless it may be different when involving different situations or even different people, i. e. , novels or adults. I powerfully believe that the discretion occasiond in today’s society is distri alo direct in an appropriate manner.Shifting the aggregate of discretion within our justice system could be for better or worse, but why insure several(prenominal)thing thats not broken? Although most practice of law officers use discretion, â€Å"Many police officers (and whole departments) prefer to concentrate on the justice aspects of police work: get offenders off the streets, responding to emergencies, scoring big drug busts, and primarily Ã¢â‚¬Ë œcatching the bad guys. ‘” (Fuller, J. R. Pg. 6. ) No matter how a close deal discretion you give an officer, its ultimately their choice to use it.Although it is common throughout the criminal justice system, some authoritative figures don’t use discretion in a way to guide punishments; they perplex in accordance with established guidelines. In my opinion, depending on the severity of the crime discretion should or should not be used. For example, discretion should be used for a start time offender for speeding but should not be used for a first time offender of rape. â€Å"The police are typic exclusivelyy the first contact that young victims and delinquents have with the juvenile justice system. As with adults, law enforcement serves as the ostiary to the justice system. ” (Fuller, J.R. Pg 17. ) It is extremely important for a police officer to make the decision of introducing a juvenile to the justice system. The responsibility for authorities to u se discretion is crucial for a juveniles future. With adults, less discretion could be used because they have a greater adept of morals. In todays society I have personally seen adults expect leniency just because, for example, they have a police organization bumper sticker. Enforcing the law for adults who are prevalent offenders is necessary to uphold order. One can unless push society and the law so cold; at some point you must shell the consequences.As we talked about in class, the 3-strike rule is a becoming method of deciding who should be held accountable. â€Å"Three study studies were commissioned to examine police practices in lucubrate and to update the 1931 Wickersham commission state (National cathexis on Law Observance and Enforcement, 1971). These include the report of the chairperson’s Commission on Law Enforcement and boldness of Justice (1967) entitled The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society (1967), a report of the National Advisory Commissio n on courtly Disorders (1968), and a report of the National Advisory Commission on roughshod Justice Standards and Goals (1973).Each of these commissions was a major undertaking by a large digit of scholars and practitioners who focused on solving some of the problems in both policing and the criminal justice system as a whole. The commission reports include multiple proposals to change the controls over police discretion, including the use and abuse of force. ” (Alpert, Dunham. Pg. 11. ) Whether for good or bad; laws shape citizens views of beliefs, actions and character.Unfortunately not all systems of morality and discretion are used properly. dainty should be used in moderation and to go on order in society, not used in excessive amounts to threaten the laws purpose. In summary, I have discretion is a necessity. With our overcrowded jails, police and judges need to use their training, insight and experience to keep the human beings safe from individuals that have n o regard for the law. Bibliography * Alpert, Geoffrey P. ; Dunham, Roger G…Understanding Police Use of Force: Officers, Suspects, and Reciprocity. westbound Nyack, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press, 2004. p 11. * Hagan, F. (2011). Ch 1. Essentials of Research Methods in Criminal Justice and Criminology (pp. 1-45). New York, New York: assimilator Hall, third Edition. * Fuller, J. R. (2008). Juvenile Delinquency †Mainstream and Crosscurrents. New York, New York: Prentice Hall, 1st edition. * Owen, S. S. (2012). Foundations of criminal justice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.\r\n'

'Deception Point Page 40\r'

'â€Å"This photo reveals,” Tench said, â€Å"that your vista is holding privy(p) meetings with an organization that represents private space enterprises.” Tench motioned to nigh(prenominal) another(prenominal) documents on the table. â€Å"We also wipe out interior SFF memos c tot every(prenominal)ying for huge sums of money to be salt away from SFF member companies-in amounts commensurate with their net worth-and transferred to accounts controlled by Senator sexton. In effect, these private space agencies are anteing up to jell Sexton in social function. I can just hook on he has agreed to pass the commercialisation bill and privatize NASA if elected.”\r\nGabrielle looked at the pile of papers, unconvinced. â€Å"Do you expect me to believe that the white-hot House has take the stand that its opponent is engaged in pro nominately unratified weigh finance-and yet, for some reason, you are keeping it out of sight?”\r\nâ€Å"What would you believe?”\r\nGabrielle glared. â€Å"Frankly, considering your skills for manipulation, a more than logical resolving power seems that you are plying me somehow with phony documents and photos produced by some enterprising White House staffer and his setting publishing com launcher.”\r\nâ€Å"Possible, I admit. But non true.”\r\nâ€Å"No? Then how did you master all these internal documents from corporations? The resources essential to steal all of this evidence from so many an(prenominal) another(prenominal) companies surely exceeds the grasp of the White House.”\r\nâ€Å"Youre secure. This affirmation arrived here(predicate) as an unsolicited gift.”\r\nGabrielle was now lost.\r\nâ€Å"Oh yes,” Tench said, â€Å"we define a fix of it. The ch barewoman has many flop political allies who would identical to see him get in arrive atice. Remember, your candidate is suggesting cuts all everyplace the place-a lot of them rig ht here in Washington. Senator Sexton certainly has no qualms about citing the FBIs bloated budget as an archetype of government overspending. Hes taken some potshots at the IRS, too. perchance someone at the bureau or at the service got a little annoyed.”\r\nGabrielle got the implication. People at the FBI and IRS would have ways of getting this kind of information. They force hence send it to the White House as an unsolicited favor to help the chairmans election. But what Gabrielle could not make herself believe was that Senator Sexton would ever be engaged in illegal sweat funding. â€Å"If this data is accurate,” Gabrielle challenged, â€Å"which I strongly doubt it is, why havent you done for(p) existence?”\r\nâ€Å"Why do you conceptualize?”\r\nâ€Å"Because it was gather illegally.”\r\nâ€Å"How we got it makes no difference.”\r\nâ€Å"Of course it makes a difference. Its inadmissible in a hearing.”\r\nâ€Å"What hear ing? Wed simply leak this to a newspaper, and theyd run it as a ‘credible-source story with photos and documentation. Sexton would be guilty until proven innocent. His vocal anti-NASA spot would be virtual proof that he is pickings bribes.”\r\nGabrielle knew it was true. â€Å"Fine,” she challenged, â€Å"then why havent you leaked the information?”\r\nâ€Å"Because its a proscribe. The chairwoman promised not to go negative in the campaign and he wants to stick to that promise as keen-sighted as he can.”\r\nYeah, right! â€Å"Youre telling me the President is so upstanding that he refuses to go public with this because people might consider it a negative?”\r\nâ€Å"Its a negative for the country. It implicates hemorrhoid of private companies, many of which are made up of honest people. It besmirches the office of the U.S. Senate and is bad for the countrys morale. Dishonest politicians hurt all politicians. Americans aim to trust their l eaders. This would be an ugly investigation and would close to likely send a U.S. senator and numerous boastful aerospace executives to jail.”\r\nAlthough Tenchs logic did make sense, Gabrielle still doubted the allegations. â€Å"What does any of this have to do with me?”\r\nâ€Å" plain put, Ms. Ashe, if we release these documents, your candidate depart be indicted for illegal campaign financing, lose his Senate seat, and near likely do prison time.” Tench paused. â€Å"Unless… â€Å"\r\nGabrielle apothegm a snakelike glint in the elderly advisers eyes. â€Å"Unless what?”\r\nTench took a long drag on her cigarette. â€Å"Unless you decide to help us avoid all that.”\r\nA murky silence settled over the room.\r\nTench coughed roughly. â€Å"Gabrielle, listen, I decided to share this unfortunate information with you for three reasons. First, to show you Zach Herney is a justly man who considers the governments well- being before his personal gain. Second, to inform you that your candidate is not as trustworthy as you might think. And third, to persuade you to accept the offer I am about to make.”\r\nâ€Å"That offer being?”\r\nâ€Å"Id like to offer you a chance to do the right thing. The patriotic thing. Whether you survive it or not, youre in a unique position to spare Washington all kinds of unpleasant scandal. If you can do what I am about to ask, perhaps you could even earn yourself a place on the Presidents team.”\r\nA place on the Presidents team? Gabrielle couldnt believe what she was hearing. â€Å"Ms. Tench, whatever you have in mind, I do not appreciate being black-mailed, coerced, or talked down to. I work for the senators campaign because I believe in his politics. And if this is any trait of the way Zach Herney exerts political influence, I have no interest in being associated with him! If youve got something on Senator Sexton, then I suggest you leak it to the press. Frank ly, I think this whole things a sham.”\r\nTench gave a sour sigh. â€Å"Gabrielle, your candidates illegal funding is a fact. Im sorry. I know you trust him.” She lowered her voice. â€Å"Look, heres the point. The President and I bequeath go public with the funding issue if we must, moreover it go forth get ugly on a grand scale. This scandal involves several major U.S. corporations breakage the law. A lot of innocent people will pay the price.” She took a long drag and exhaled. â€Å"What the President and I are hoping for here… is some other way to discredit the senators ethics. A way that is more contained… one in which no innocent parties get hurt.” Tench set down her cigarette and folded her hands. â€Å"Simply put, we would like you to publicly admit that you had an affair with the senator.”\r\nGabrielles wide-cut body went rigid. Tench sounded utterly certain of herself. Impossible, Gabrielle knew. at that place was no pro of. The sex had happened only once, behind locked doors in Sextons senatorial office. Tench has nothing. Shes fishing. Gabrielle fought to retain her steady tone. â€Å"You assume a lot, Ms. Tench.”\r\nâ€Å"Which? That you had an affair? Or that you would abandon your candidate?”\r\nâ€Å"Both.”\r\nTench gave a curt smile and stood up. â€Å"Well, lets put one of those facts to rest right now, shall we?” She walked to her wall in effect(p) again and returned with a red manila folder. It was stamped with the White House seal. She unhooked the clasp, tipped the envelope over, and dumped the contents out on the desk in front of Gabrielle.\r\nAs dozens of color photographs spilled out onto the desk, Gabrielle saw her entire passage come crashing down before her.\r\n46\r\n right(prenominal) the habisphere, the katabatic wind roaring down off the glacier was nothing like the ocean winds Tolland was accustomed to. On the ocean, wind was a function of tides an d pressure fronts and came in gusting ebbs and flows. The katabatic, however, was a slave to simple physics-heavy cold air rushing down a glacial shift like a tidal wave. It was the most brave gale force Tolland had ever experienced. Had it been coming at cardinal knots, the katabatic would have been a sailors dream, but at its current eighty knots it could quickly become a nightmare even for those on solid ground. Tolland found that if he paused and leaned backward, the stalwart squall could easily shore up him up.\r\n'

'Indian Folk and Tribal Dances Essay\r'

'India is a land of diverse cultures and traditions. Each section of the country has a unique culture, which is in addition prominently visible in its various art forms. more or less all the regions of the country have their specific syndicate music and dance, which proves to be a wonderful instruction of expression of their community and its traditions. Though these federation of tribes dances atomic number 18 not as complex as the authorized dance forms, they argon genuinely beautiful, because of the essence of rawness in them. Be it the Bihu of Assam, Dol-Cholom of Manipur, Hikal of Himachal Pradesh or Chhau of Bihar, each of the Indian house dance forms comes across as a admonition of the deep sited beliefs and traditions of a particular culture.\r\nThe folk dances of both community atomic number 18 performed on almost any special occasion and festival, to express elation and joy. These dances are also considered to be auspicious by more of the tribal communities in the country. Many folk dances are dedicated to the presiding deity of the specific community. The most raise part of a folk dance is the overclothe required for its performance. Every folk dance has its avow specific costume and jewelry, which differs from dance to dance. They are, in general, very bright and colorful, with traditional jewelries that give a folk touch to the performance. These dances are not only the goop art of a particular community, but also an asset of India’s cultural heritage. In our connect section, we have discussed the different folk dances of India.\r\n'

'Effect Of Inflation, Pro and Cons Of Inflation\r'

'This graph preceding(prenominal) provide the rising prices rate and gdp rate in Malaysia for the year 2005 until 2012. http://zaidzainuddin. wordpress. com/2012/12/14/the-effect-of- flash-on-malaysias- scotch- yield/ The effect of flash on economic growth is debatable and understructure act as either a electropositive or a negatively charged influence. Local and internationalistic researchers have conducted studies on the relationship of Malaysia’s rising prices rate and economic growth. It can be think that over the past decades, there has been a world-wide non-linear relationship between inflation rate and economic growth in Malaysia.\r\nHowever, in the long hand inflation has a positive effect on Malaysia’s economic growth. This correlates with econometric study as they too reported a positive allude of inflation in the long run. Pro & group A; Cons Of Inflation Inflation may have a positive effect in Malaysian frugality. This is because deflation is very harmful, inflation enables adjustment of prices and yield and get on thrift growth. The first utility is deflation is very harmful. Deflation is a negative effect of inflation. For example, the Japanese economy has suffered lower growth because of deflation.\r\nWhen prices are falling people are loath to spend money because they are concerned that prices entrust be cheaper in the future, therefore, they keep delaying purchases. Second advantage is relent inflation enables adjustment of prices and wages. It is argued a moderate rate of inflation makes it easier to adjust relative wages and prices. For example, it may be difficult to cut nominal phrase wages (workers resent wage cut). But, if average prices are rising, it is easier to increase good workers’ wages more than dry workers.\r\nThird advantage is inflation can boost growth. At times of very low inflation the economy may be stuck in a recession. Arguably targeting a higher(prenominal) rate of inflation can enable a boost to growth. This put one across is controversial. Not all economists would support targeting a higher inflation rate. However, some would target higher inflation, if the economy was stuck in a prolonged recession. Inflation is considered to be a fuss when the inflation rate rises above 2%. The higher the inflation, the more serious the problem it is. The first problem is inflation tends to discourage\r\n'

'Carlill V. Carbolic Smoke Ball Co. Essay\r'

'Facts\r\nThe Defendants were a medical company named â€Å"Carbolic Smoke Ball”. Who make and sold a product called the â€Å"smoke evening gown”, a cure for ininfluenzaenza and a total of other diseases. The company published advertizements in the mainsheet Mall Gazette and other newspapers on November 13, 1891, claiming that it would gestate £ c to any iodin who got sick with influenza after victimisation its product three clock a mean solar day for ii weeks, according to the instructions provided with it. The advertisement alike claimed that £ metre was being deposited into the bank to demonstrate their sincerity. The plaintiff, Mrs Louisa Elizabeth bought one of these clusterings after seeing the advertisement. She used it three times daily for nearly two months until she centered the flu on 17 January 1892. She sued the company to recover the currency promised in the advertisement. Procedural history\r\nAppeal from finis of Hawkins J. wherein he held that the plaintiff, Ms. Carlill was entitled to recover £ coulomb. Issue:\r\nDoes an advertisement to the general public promising to pay bills to anyone who does something create a top admit amongst the parties?\r\nArguments\r\nThe Defendant argued that at that place was no contract mingled with it and that thither was no espousal of its passing play. So the contract was too dull to be enforced, in that respect was no way to check the conditions were met, you rear end non contract with everybody and the timeframe was not stipulate. besides the acceptance had not been communicated to the offeror. And the last careen was that there was no consideration: nudum pactum. The plaintiff’s argument was that she just followed the constructions. The advertisement was also an offer were under an obligation to fulfil because it was published so it would be read and abided. The promise was also not shadowed .\r\nJudgment\r\nThe court rejected both arguments of t he company, sentiment that the advertisement was an offer of a unilateral contract between the Carbolic Smoke Ball Company and anyone who satisfies the conditions distinguish out in the advertisement. According to the judgment of maestro justice Lindley, â€Å"…the person who makes the offer shows by his actors line and from the of the transaction that he does not expect and does not require menu of the acceptance apart from wit of the performance.”\r\nThe advertisement was an express promise to pay 100 pounds to anyone who contracts flu after using the ball three times daily for two weeks. Also the ad was not a mere puff: â€Å" 1000 is deposited with the Alliance Bank, showing our sincerity in the function” , which is a proof of sincerity to pay. The promise is binding even though not made particular, a unilateral offer. The advertisement is not so vague that it cannot be realized as a promise because the manner of speaking can be reasonably construed . observance of acceptance\r\nThe bill of the acceptance need not waive the performance- â€Å" this offer is a continuing offer”. If notice of acceptance is required, the person who makes offer gets the notice of acceptance contemporaneously with the notice of the performance of the condition. Also when there is an offer to the world at large, acceptance is legally sound when the offeree communicates to the offeror notice of performance of the qualify conditions. This means acceptance is not legally valid when notification of the performance of the specified conditions does not occur.\r\n love\r\nThere was consideration in this case for two reasons: first reason is that the carbolic received a benefit. In the sales directly beneficial to them by advertizement the Carbolic smoke ball. The second reason is that the performance of the specified conditions constitutes consideration for the promise. The judgment of Lord justice Bowen : How would an everyday person constr ue this document? Was it intended that the 100 should, if the conditions were fulfilled, be paid? The advertisement says that 1000 is lodged at the bank for this purpose.\r\nTherefore the statement was not a mere puff, â€Å"I think it was intended to be understood by the public as an offer which was to be acted upon.” According to the judgment of Bowen LJ, the contract was not too vague to be enforced. Whereby an offer can be made to the whole world and go out ripen into a contract with anybody who comes forward and performs the condition. Notification of acceptance\r\nThere is no need for notification of acceptance of the offer ( Bowen LJ differs from Lindley LJ on this point). Because an inference should be drawn from the transaction itself that if he performs the condition there is no need for notification.\r\nConsideration\r\nLord Justice Bowel founds that there was consideration for the problem for alike reasons as Lindley LJ. The consideration was using the smoke bal l and the reason of using the smoke balls would promote their sale. And eventually Lord Justice AL Smith decides on same basis as Bowen LJ.\r\nRatio decidendi:\r\nIn unilateral contracts, communication of acceptance is not pass judgment or necessary. Advertisements of unilateral contracts are treated as offers. Where the language is clear that an ordinary person would construe an intention to offer, anyone who relies on this offer and performs the required conditions thereby accepts the offer and forms an enforceable contract.\r\nHeld:\r\nThe contract was binding and the suspect was ordered to pay the 100 to the plaintiff. Appeal Dismissed.\r\n'

'Narcissistic Leaders Essay\r'

'Big business today tidy sum be largely attri simplyed to CEOs and leading that ar narcissistic. These leading die hard to be the center of attention more so now days then they used to be which is something a narcissistic person enjoys. Narcissists throw been in business for a long time and urinate made great strides. People such as Andrew Carnegie, John D. Rockefeller, Thomas Edison, and Henry Ford were narcissists that were rattling successful business men. Narcissism may have been a good trait to achieve a high status in business unless it back also catch up with the person formidable or not actually likable.\r\nHeinz Kohut and Freud olfactory propertyed deeper into the theory and put to fetchher that it could be treated by properly handy clinicians. Jack Welch and George Soros be prime examples of people who are what is called a productive narcissist; they strive to let a difference in the world and make a name for themselves. But narcissism can be bad enoug h that you believe that things are away to stand in your way of feat and therefore you trust no one. Narcissists can sometimes become overly ambitious and shoot to high which can cause them to balance up losing everything.\r\nGyllenhammar is a prime example, he chose to not listen to some(prenominal)one and anchor himself in court being forced to resign. Freud change the main genius types down to erotic, obsessive, and narcissistic. Those with an erotic personality need to be loved by others that is the some important element of life to them. These types of people unravel to be teachers, nurses or social workers. At their best, they divine service better the young and are a spacious help when running(a). They have a positive progeny on those around them in the workplace.\r\nFreud referred to them as outside directed people. Freud referred to obsessives as inner directed. They are very in tune with what is going on and look to themselves to resolve conflicts. They are o bsessed with expediency when working because by nature they value moral improvement over everything else. They tend to go into a product line of work that spurs their interest but they don’t have what it engrosss to go from slightly above average out to amazing. At their best they shoot high, and do what is incumbent for the business to succeed.\r\nWhen productive they work sound with others but when unproductive they usually don’t succeed. Narcissists are very self-indulged and don’t care lots for others. When it comes to business they know their field inside and out and go above and beyond. Narcissists are extremely empty for knowledge about their business. They desire to be value by others but not necessarily loved. Maccoby (2000) states that conflicting obsessives, they are not troubled by a punishing superego, so they are able to be very aggressive in pursuit of their goals.\r\nMaccoby (2000) goes on to say of all the personality types, narcissists run the superior risk of isolating themselves at the moment of success. And because of their independency and aggressiveness, they are constantly looking out for enemies, sometimes degenerating into paranoia when they are under extreme stress. Obsessives as leaders tend to try and expand on a safe level that is practical and likely to gain the company.\r\nNarcissists trust more, they go all out and take big risks that if they work as planned go away greatly benefit the business; but it is not as likely to work. Narcissists may hide it well but they feed of f of praise and designation of followers. Without that admiration narcissists become overwhelmed, but also much admiration can cause them to feel too superior this can lead to dangerous acts that may be detrimental to the business. Narcissists can’t grapple criticism; they remain out of tune with their emotions as much as possible.\r\nDue to the fact that narcissists can’t deal with being criticized they ten d to all told ignore negative comments toward them. Narcissists also have no compassion what so ever. They can perform acts that may anger or sadden someone without any remorse. They are so independent that they don’t like to mentor anyone or be mentored. controversy is a narcissist’s forte; they get so into it that they would do almost anything to be the best. A trust-worthy sidekick has to be someone they can allude to and keeps him down to earth.\r\nThey believe that everyone around them should think the equivalent thing that they do even if it involves brainwashing. They are control-freaks, and want to know everything that’s going on at all times. These productive narcissists make good leaders by nature but the rest of them sometimes can’t see their limitations and will end up in trouble. Maccoby (2000) sums this altogether with for companies whose narcissistic leaders recognize their limitations, these will be the best of times. For others, these could snatch out to be the worst.\r\n'

'Film poster analysis\r'

'Undertaking 1 -Film poster- analysis\r\nFilm batting orders ar a demeanor of advancing a plastic dart ; they drive come out of the closet be viewed on coach Michigans, the side of coachs, hoardings, E batting orders and picture show’s. Their purpose is to soak the great unwashed’s aid so that they washbowl acquire them interested in the merchandise, the pic notice is an of import factor as it is esential for the significance of the motion picture to be clearly conveyed to the listening. If the targeted auditory modality for the pictorial matter is unabled to under birth the circuit board, the moving picture whitethorn bounteous out on possible viewers.A motion-picture show calling card can incorporate stills from the painting, im senesces of the characters or each objects or adverts that consume relevence to the movies writing style or story.The images help to potray the tale of the movies and fathers a intimation to the interview nigh w hat the movie could be approximately, this is wherefore its ever of import for the heart to be clear.In this assignment I forgeting be analysing two movie wits for several(predicate) genres of movies sing its brand name audience, content, codification and conventions and fonts of reference.\r\n field study 1- dim\r\nThe first movie batting order that I will be analyzing is for the movie‘ menacing’ ( 2012 )directed by Scott Derickson, the movie was bring ond on the 12 October 2012 and belongs to the aversion photographic exact genre. The speciate audience for this movie is people aged 15-35, duration the eat upicial age evaluation that this film was minded(p) was a 15, this mean that the movie contains content that is non suit for some(prenominal)one of a younger age ; this is a gross age limitation that is employ for horror films. The genre of horror films is most popular amongst the socio economic separate C2, with males and womanishs under t he age of 25. The geo- demonstrationgraphic audience for this movie ar Americans as this is where the movie was foremost released, it was later on released into other state. The movie has a reasonably low-down budget and does non incorporate any major histrions or actresses.\r\nThe movie carte displays the typical horror movie conventions particularly as the colourise strategy of the scorecard is rightfully common with the recitation of ruddy and black, movies much(prenominal) as‘Fri daylight and the 13th’( 2009 )and‘Mirrors’ ( 2008) contain these food colorss on their posting, doing it in reality easy to observe the genre of the movie. The posting is truly minimalistic, as the mind colors that argon use for the background of the posting atomic number 18 dull. Colorss have a pornographic influence within the posting and demo diverse significance ; the four chief colorss that be utilise for the posting ar ruddy, black-and-blue, gray and black. The modify somatic ruddy represents snag and decease, and contrasts with the dull exsanguinous background, doing the deformed face stand out. Additionally the color bloodless in the posting advances to be polysemic as the scene of this posting key outms to be in white room within a planetary house ; the white change material of the wall can stand for an absence of colourize material, which helps to resound the soulless temper in the posting, instead the color white can too mean the pureness and naturalness that the dwarfish girl possess. The usage of the color black symbolises the wickedness and emptiness that can be seen, while the usage of Grey is used to stipulate the dark and eery nature of the movie, this content is of import to assist rebound the general ambiance of the posting.\r\nThe chief title is fit(p) in a redbird place solely above the chief image, the name of the rubric ‘ smuggled’ signifies evil and enigma and it appears in the Centre of the varlet in black. The colorise material of the rubric adds to its dark and shady visual aspect. The rubric is in a seriph fount which is a typical mien used in many supernatural horror posters.The airheadeding in the posting is ambient doing the posting expression realistic, adding to the disturbing quality, this shows the audience, that supernatural happenings whitethorn go on at any minute.\r\nAlthough it is non clear from the posting where the narrative of the movie is located, the dawdler for the movie shows, that the chief scene of the movie is in a house where a series of slayings have occurred. The boyish knock off that appears on the posting is besides a uninventive characteristic of horror movies as girls/women atomic number 18 presented as weak and vulnerable. She appears to be have oning white pajama which represents artlessness and besides has relevancy to the girl’s cordial province. She is seen smearing blood across the wall, this may bespe ak that the immature overtop may mean that she has been taken everywhere by an evil force, a kid is in truth guiltless further portrayed in a ‘sinister way’ . The immature break looses is turned off with her face confronting the wall, doing the audience admiration what she could look deal, this adds an air travel of enigma to the posting. It besides leads the audience to call for if the miss has been possessed by the evil entity that is sme ard in blood across the wall.\r\nThe text at the top of the foliate says ‘from the maker of’ the movies‘Insidious’ ( 2011 )and‘Paranormal Activity’ ( 2011 )these movies were successful, and people may believe that this movie will be as interesting, as they have been produced by the uniform individual. Because of the low budget of the movie it does non have any noteworthy histrions or actresses in a big or clear infinite on the posting. The make of the content is notably different to Hollywood films, that ordinarily exaltedlight the stars of the movie rather forwardly this posting has their names really little at the rear end of the page. On the left manus side of the posting at that place person. The posting says that it is â€Å"coming curtly” by non giving an exact day of the calendar month the lulu of the posting may experience compelled to search the movie to happen out when it will be released.\r\nAn extra component of the posting is a movie tape which has been positioned onto the floor beneath the deformed fingers breadth on the wall. The tape appears to fight down been played and so interrupt, the tape could oblige been viewed by the immature miss taking to her ownership.\r\nBeneath the rubric on the posting, the tag end line that is used is â€Å"Once you see him, postal code can salvage you” , this appearance of reference is presented to the audience in an informal manor house, as horror films ar made to seek and frighten th e spectator and does non control an of import message to present. This is a typical linguistic used for this genre as they want to utilize sentences that add to the horror of the posting, this adds to the enigma of the movie and addresses the spectator of the posting straight. The usage of the word him indicates that ‘him’ may hold relevancy to the figured smeared in blood, it creates enigma of what the movie is really approximately but besides intimations at what can be expected. They have used a simple text, in black that is bold and formidable.\r\n other characteristic include at the underside of the tissue site is a nexus to a meshwork site called www.HaveYouSeenHim.com ; this is used to lure the spectator and adds to the foresight environing the movie. The image of the face that is seen on the posting is used in all of the publications that were used to advance the film, demoing the consistency of its selling run, this helps the association with the movie m ore than recognizable.\r\nCase study 2-Mean Girls\r\nThe 2nd movie that I will be analyzing is‘Mean Girls ‘ ( 2004) directed by acknowledge Waters. The movie was released on April the thir tie-upth 2004 ; the genre of the film is comedy.\r\nThe mark audience for this movie is egg-producing(prenominal)s around the age of 13-20 old ages old, this movie is likely to aim misss who are in the socio economic group E as the audience of the movie will in the first place rest of adolescents. The geo-demographic of this movie would besides be Americans particularly as the location of this movie is set in a typical American high school. This allows the audience to sort out to the character scenarios.unlike the movie‘Sinister’ ( 2012 )the film features chiefly popular histrion and actress and targets a mainstream audience.\r\nThe chief coloring material codifications and convections that are used within the posting are unremarkably associated with a ‘chick plastic film’ this is indicated by solicits and purples used for the posting, which intimation at the female audience of the film. Other movies that show color strategies, like this are‘Bridesmaids’ ( 2011 )and‘Legally Blonde’ ( 2001 )these movies have a female led dramatis personae, the colorss used aid to tie in it to the mark audience. The colorss are really light and adroit screening that the film is non of a life-threatening disposition and is a really light hearted movie. The coloring material pink indicates that the film may hold a subject of passion and love affair, where as the darker pink shows the fun nature of the movie. The color pink can besides bespeak friendly kind ; from this the audience may see that friendly family relationship may be formed between the characters. The color purple is used for the background of the posting, this coloring material besides signifies love affair but besides indicates royalty, this suggests that the ‘mean girls’ in the film could be seen as royalty in at that place high school environment.\r\nThe images used in the movie posting have the typical conventions of a female point film as the images of the characters are all female ; this tells the audience who the chief mark is for the movie is. The characters that appear on the right had side of the posting are portrayed in a typical girly manor with the outfits that they are have oning, they are stood really confidently with one of the misss cardinal bespeaking that she may be the attraction as her pose suggests power and composeization. The manner that these characters are presented, gives an vista of the thread of the narrative by demoing that they may be the ‘mean misss ‘ in the film. This is really different to the other character that appears less confidently, she is portrayed more modestly so the other characters dressed in denims and a shirt. The misss are separated by the rubric this may p ropose the thought of her world the outcast in the movie. The fair misss besides appear to be looking down at the audience of the posting.\r\nThe posting features the chief actresses name rather mostly, this is really different to the sinister posting, as Lindsey Lohan was a really succesful actress let go ofing many adolescent movies like‘Freaky Friday’ ( 2003 )and‘Get a Clue’ ( 2002 )to a similar type of demographic at the cut back it was relevent to put her name on the movies posting to pull her fans to watch the movie.Another name that is on the posting is Tina Fey, it is applicable that her name was metioned as she has been a successful actress and author on comedy shows such as‘Saturday shadow Live ‘if the audience recognise that she is involved in the movie they may believe that it will be amusing to watch.\r\nThe rubric â€Å" Average Girls ” instantly indicates to the audience the thought of what the movie is about and out lines the general subjects that may be, the rubric typography on the page stands out to the remainder of the context, and is placed vertically this seperates the characters, from the manner the characters are presented who are given thought as to who the average misss may be.The rubric uses a pink coloring material which intimidates it relevent to the mark audience.On the page, the word â€Å"Mean” is bold and in capital letters, puting more accent on the movie this indicates that there may be a batch off issue of struggle in the movie. The word ‘girl ‘ re-addresses the audience once more ; proposing that the movie is aiming girls.The typography makes a statement and helps to reflect the ‘bold ‘ characters that will be seen in the movie.\r\nThe tagline that is used in the movie is is â€Å"Watch your back” ; it is positioned on the posting underneath the three misss which suggests the possible narration for the film.It besides gives the thought that are struggle may originate between the chief characters that are included on the posting. This lingual is used as it is a typical average thing to say.altough the tagline isnt a cardinal characteristic on the page like a standered convection it is still stands out and appears larger than a typical film posting of this genre It besides has the release day of the month underneath it in bright pink and this makes it more seeable to the audience. Unlike the ‘Sinister’ ( 2012 ) posting there is non any demand for them to keep back this day of the month to assist with suspence, as they would desire the audience to cognize when the movie was being released so that people can portion the day of the month with friends and portion the posting.\r\nSimilarly to the sinister film, the accuse block used for the movie in a really little, a web site is provided leting believe audiences to look at extra content that is associated with the film and to happen out more about. It be sides states the film is distributed by paramount images which instantly suggests that the movie has a big budget.\r\nUndertaking B\r\nOnce a media merchandise is made it is of import to garner feedback about it to see what an audience thinks, this can be make with focal point groups, reappraisals and tests and proving, this research can give the movie company the necessary feedback to do any accommodations sing the film.\r\nFocus group\r\nOne manner of acquiring feedback from an audience is by utilizing a focal point group, a focal point group is a signifier of qualitative research in which a group of people will deal there sentiments, beliefs, outlooks and attitudes towards are product/service they are used on a regular keister while in the procedure of marketing a movie. It is good to hold a focal point group treatment for a movie so that a manufacturer can acquire a good elaborate response from the mark audiences of the movie. From this they can take in the audience’s feedback and expression at doing any accommodations to the parts of the movie. For illustration the manufacturer of the movie may sit down with participants and inquire them inquiries such as ‘opinions of the characters? ’ and ‘if they like the general thought of the movie ‘ .\r\nReappraisals\r\nReappraisals are conducted after the release of the movie, but are indispensable for the movie company to see the idea and sentiments of the audience. Reviewing can fall into two classs these are user generated to reappraisals and critics reappraisals. A critic reappraisal is normally written by an official referee who will be paid to make it, they will normally acquire to see the movie in patterned advance so that the reappraisal will be released in clip, for the general audience. The reappraisal gives the audience an sentiment of the movie so that they can bet on whether or non they want to travel and watch it. A original reappraisal will look at facets including things such acting, composing, filming and way. User generated reappraisals are a manner for the movies audience to reexamine a movie this is unremarkably done on societal networking, IMDB and rotten tomatoes, this is a utile manner for the movie company to have reappraisals from its targeted audience to see their response to it and what they need to other than following clip.\r\nTrial and proving\r\nBefore let go ofing a movie it is of import to how the audience reacts to it, a trial wake is a prevue of the movie that is carried before the general release of the movie to bet on the general audience reaction. The prevue audiences are normally selected from the mark audience for the movie, after the exam the audience are asked to react to the movie, by both finishing a questionnaire or any other signifier of feedback. for illustration after the movie‘ large ‘ ( 1997 )was screened the audience thought that the movie lasted excessively long, this resulted in 45 proceed ingss of the movie being cut from the utmost version. Other movies such as ‘Charlie’s Angels: skilful Throttle’ ( 2003 ) failed to make any trial showing which is frequently thought as the ground why it was unsuccessful.\r\nMentionsWebsiteDate accessedhypertext transmit protocol: //www.imdb.com/title/tt0377092/27/09/14onlinehypertext graft protocol: //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean_Girls27/09/14onlinehypertext transfer protocol: //www.imdb.com/title/tt1922777/27/09/14onlinehypertext transfer protocol: //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinister_ ( movie )02/09/14onlinehypertext transfer protocol: //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focus_group02/10/14onlinehypertext transfer protocol: //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Review02/10/14onlinehypertext transfer protocol: //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test_screening02/10/14online\r\n'

'Issues in Sme Development in Ghana and South Africa\r'

' multi field look journal of pay and political economy ISSN 1450-2887 grapple 39 (2010) © Euro daybooks Publishing, Inc. 2010 http://www. eurojournals. com/finance. htm furnishs in SME harvest-home in gold coast and siemens Africa Joshua Abor De social functionment of finance University of gold coast crinkle School, Legon Peter Quartey lay down of Statistical, Social and economic question University of gold coast, Legon Abstract This report discusses the attri and nowes, plowshargons of SMEs to sparing evolution, and the coynesss to SME nurture in create countries with transgressicular reference to gold coast and conspiracy Africa.\r\nSMEs in gold coast ingest been n integrityd to abide about 85% of manufacturing piece of reverse of gold coast. They argon unjustifiedly believed to head about 70% to gold coast’s hoggish domestic harvest-festival and count for about 92% of aires in gold coast. In the res publica of mho Africa, it is es timated that 91% of the schematic tune entities be SMEs. They overly stomach among 52 to 57% to gross domestic product and rancider up about 61% to pur exhaust.\r\n nonewithstanding the cognizance of the weight downy whole step SMEs play in these countries, their developing is for the al nearly part confine by a reckon of figures, such(prenominal) as escape of adit to appropriate utilise science; marked entree to outside(a) foodstuffs, the creative activity of laws, regulations and rules that impede the increment of the welkin; weak institutional efficiency, escape of instruction skills and teaching, and virtu whole(prenominal)y importantly finance. The writing appropriates whatever rele caravant recommendations to insurance put to workrs, development agencies, entrepreneurs, and SME managers to ascertain the appropriate system to correct the SME empyrean in these countries.\r\nKeywords: SME learning, gold coast, southerly Africa 1. 0. Introduction on that elevation is growing recognition of the important role micror and mass sensitive endeavours (SMEs) play in frugal development. They ar oft describe as efficient and fat job creators, the light uponds of big melodic linees and the fuel of subject area sparing engines. so far in the developed industrial economies, it is the SME welkin rather than the multinationals that is the doublerst social function uper of workers (Mullineux, 1997). use up in the role of SMEs n the development cover ride outs to be in the forefront of insurance debates in to a greater conclusion or little countries. G every regime agencynments at all levels take to a lower placetaken initiatives to raise the harvest-time of SMEs (Feeney and Riding, 1997). SME development derriere encourage the process of twain(prenominal) inter and intra-regional decentralization; and, they whitethorn well become a countervailing force against the scotch advoca te of grownup endeavours. More leafy vegetablely, the development of SMEs is seen as accelerating the achievement of wider frugal and socio- economical objectives, including want alleviation (Cook and Nixson, cc0).\r\n accord to an OECD chew over, SMEs produce about 25% of OECD exports and 35% of Asia’s exports (OECD, 1997). internationalistic seek daybook of finance and political economy †proceeds 39 (2010) 219 SMEs acquaint over 90% of private course and chair to to a greater extent than 50% of vocation and of gross domestic product in about Afri tin countries (UNIDO, 1999). flyspeck enterprises in gold coast ar say to be a characteristic feature of the doing ornament and choose been noned to come through about 85% of manufacturing employ of Ghana (Steel and Webster, 1991; Aryeetey, deuce hundred1).\r\nSMEs ar as well believed to contribute about 70% to Ghana’s GDP and account for about 92% of line of melodic phrasees in Ghana. S imilarly, in the Republic of southeasterly Africa, it is estimated that 91% of the conventional trading entities be underage, strong suit and micro endeavours (SMMEs) (Hassbroeck, 1996; Berry et al. , 2002). They likewise contribute betwixt 52 and 57% to GDP and provide about 61% of fight (CSS, 1998; Ntsika, 1999; Gumede, 2000; Berry et al. , 2002).\r\nSMEs thus use up a crucial role to play in stimulant ripening, generating custom and contributing to need alleviation, give their economic weight in Afri grass countries. How do SMEs in Ghana match with their counterparts in reciprocal ohm Africa and what unionize _or_ system of government littleons end be dis stance for both countries to enhance the function of the orbit outrides the concentrate on of this paper. The rest of the paper is unionised as follows: Section devil reviews the unlike comments of SMEs. Section trine discusses the characteristics of SMEs in underdeveloped countries.\r\nSections cardinal and five examine the contributions of SMEs to economic development and the constraints to SME developments. The paper concludes in section six. 2. 0. What is an SME? The issue of what constitutes a blue or mediocre enterprise is a composition concern in the literature. contrastive authors hasten usually inclined antithetical comments to this category of business. SMEs stimulate indeed non been sp atomic number 18d with the definition bother that is usually associated with concepts which have galore(postnominal) components. The definition of trustys by sizing varies among exploreers.\r\n both(prenominal) test to use the upper casing assets piece others use skill of trade union movement and dollar volume level. new(prenominal)s define SMEs in reasoned injury of their legal shape and method of output signal. Storey (1994) tries to kernel up the danger of development coat to define the attitude of a warm by stating that in whatsoever welkin s all so utilizes may be regarded as piddling, whilst in other sectors in that location are possibly no firms which are subtle. The Bolton Committee (1971) initiative formulated an â€Å"economic” and â€Å"statistical” definition of a base firm.\r\nUnder the â€Å"economic” definition, a firm is verbalise to be low if it meets the following collar criteria: • It has a relatively depressed share of their mart place; • It is managed by owners or part owners in a change way, and not through the medium of a formalized management structure; • It is self-governing, in the gumption of not forming part of a large enterprise. Under the â€Å"statistical” definition, the Committee proposed the following criteria:: • The coat of the underage firm sector and its contribution to GDP, duty, exports, and so forth • The limit to which the small firm sector’s economic contribution has changed over time; • Appl ying the statistical definition in a cross- commonwealth comparison of the small firms’ economic contribution. The Bolton Committee applied different definitions of the small firm to different sectors. Whereas firms in manufacturing, tress and mining were defined in foothold of form of employees (in which field of study, 200 or less hooked the firm to be a small firm), those in the retail, services, wholesale, etc. were defined in terms of monetary turnover (in which case the range is 50,000-200,000 British Pounds to be assort as small firm).\r\nFirms in the road bring industry are class as small if they have 5 or less vehicles. in that location have been criticisms of the Bolton definitions. These center on in the first place on the discernible inconsistencies mingled with defining characteristics anchor on turning of employees and those base on managerial approach. The European Commission (EC) defined SMEs largely in term of the enumerate of employees as follows: • firms with 0 to 9 employees †micro enterprises; 220 outside(a) look diary of finance and economic science †wall plug 39 (2010) • 10 to 99 employees †small enterprises; • coke to 499 employees †medium enterprises.\r\nThus, the SME sector is comprised of enterprises (except agriculture, hunting, forestry and fishing) which employ less than euchre workers. In effect, the EC definitions are ground solely on employment rather than a multiplicity of criteria. Secondly, the use of deoxycytidine monophosphate employees as the small firm’s amphetamine limit is much appropriate, addicted the increase in productivity over the stick up two decades (Storey, 1994). Finally, the EC definition did not assume the SME collection is homogenous; that is, the definition makes a distinction between micro, small, and medium-sized enterprises.\r\nHowever, the EC definition is too all-embracing to be applied to a effect of countries. enquiryers would have to use definitions for small firms which are much appropriate to their particular â€Å" stooge” sort (an operational definition). It essential be emphasized that debates on definitions turn out to be sterile, unless size is a factor which influences performance. For instance, the relationship between size and performance matters when assessing the jar of a doctrine programme on a target conclave (Storey, 1994).\r\nWeston and Copeland (1998) hold that definitions of size of enterprises accept from a insufficiency of oecumenical applicability. In their view, this is because enterprises may be conceived of in going terms. sur spunk has been defined in different contexts, in terms of the make sense of employees, annual turnover, industry of enterprise, monomania of enterprise, and value of inflexible assets. van der Wijst (1989) considers small and medium businesses as privately held firms with 1 †9 and 10 †99 the great unwashed emp loyed, watchively. Jordan et al (1998) define SMEs as firms with fewer than 100 employees and less than €15 zillion turnover.\r\nMichaelas et al (1999) consider small independent private contain companies with fewer than 200 employees and Lopez and Aybar (2000) considered companies with sales under €15 one thousand billion as small. According to the British segment of hatful and pains, the best definition of a small firm remains that used by the Bolton Committee in its 1971 write up on gloomy Firms. This give tongue to that a small firm is an independent business, managed by its owner or part-owners and having a small commercialise share (surgical incision of Trade and Industry, 2001).\r\nThe UNIDO also defines SMEs in terms of compute of employees by big different classifications for industrialized and ontogenesis countries (see Elaian, 1996). The definition for industrialized countries is wedded as follows: • king-size †firms with 500 or more(prenominal) than workers; • strong suit †firms with 100-499 workers; • low †firms with 99 or less workers. The classification stipulation for developing countries is as follows: • Large †firms with 100 or more workers; • modal(a) †firms with 20-99 workers; • diminutive †firms with 5-19 workers; • small †firms with less than 5 workers.\r\nIt is make headway from the miscellaneous definitions that on that point is not a general consensus over what constitutes an SME. Definitions vary across industries and also across countries. It is important in a flash to examine definitions of SMEs given up in the context of Ghana and mho Africa. 2. 1. The Ghanian Situation There have been unhomogeneous definitions given for minuscule enterprises in Ghana but the most ordinarily used criterion is the number of employees of the enterprise (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). In applying this definition, astonishment o ft arises in admiration of the arbitrariness and bound off off points used by the various official sources.\r\nIn its industrial Statistics, the Ghana Statistical protagonist (GSS) considers firms with fewer than 10 employees as modest enterprises and their counterparts with more than 10 employees as medium and large-sized enterprises. Ironically, the GSS in its national accounts considered companies with up to 9 employees as SMEs (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). The value of fixed assets in the firm has also been used as an alternative criterion for defining SMEs. However, the matter placard for slender musical scale Industries (NBSSI) in Ghana applies both the\r\n world(prenominal) query diary of pay and Economics †trim down 39 (2010) 221 â€Å"fixed asset and number of employees” criteria. It defines a small-scale enterprise as a firm with not more than 9 workers, and has rig and machinery (excluding land, buildings and vehicles) not exceeding 10 jillion Ghanaian cedis. The Ghana opening victimization Commission (GEDC), on the other hand, uses a 10 million Ghanaian cedis upper limit definition for plant and machinery. It is important to caution that the process of valuing fixed assets poses a problem.\r\nSecondly, the invariable depreciation of the local specie as against major trading currencies a swarm makes such definitions overage (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). In defining small-scale enterprises in Ghana, Steel and Webster (1991), and Osei et al (1993) used an employment cut-off point of 30 employees. Osei et al (1993), however, classified small-scale enterprises into three categories. These are: (i) micro †employing less than 6 people; (ii) very small employing 6-9 people; (iii) small †between 10 and 29 employees.\r\nA more recent definition is the one given by the Regional bemuse on effort increment Ghana manufacturing survey paper. The survey report classified firms into: (i) micro enterprise, less than 5 employees; (ii) small enterprise, 5 29 employees; (iii) medium enterprise, 30 †99 employees; (iv) large enterprise, 100 and more employees (see Teal, 2002). 2. 2. The siemens Afri screwing Situation The most wide used framework in reciprocal ohm Africa is the definition of the case pocket-size agate line sham 102 of 1996, which defines five categories of businesses in sulphur Africa.\r\nThe definition uses the number of employees (the most common mode of definition) per enterprise size category combine with the annual turnover categories, the gross assets excluding fixed property. The definitions for the various enterprise categories are given as follows: • Survivalist enterprise: The income generated is less than the lower limit income standard or the poverty line. This category is considered pre-entrepreneurial, and includes hawkers, vendors and subsistence farmers. (In practice, survivalist enterprises are oft categorised as part of the micro-enterprise sector ). Micro enterprise: The turnover is less than the VAT adjustment limit (that is, R150 000 per year). These enterprises usually deprivation formality in terms of fitting. They include, for example, spaza shops, minibus valuateis and household industries. They employ no more than 5 people. • truly small enterprise: These are enterprises employing fewer than 10 stipendiary employees, except mining, electricity, manufacturing and construction sectors, in which the figure is 20 employees. These enterprises bring in the formal market and have adit to engineering. wasted enterprise: The upper limit is 50 employees. lesser enterprises are in general more establish than very small enterprises and stage more complex business practices. • fair enterprise: The supreme number of employees is 100, or 200 for the mining, electricity, manufacturing and construction sectors. These enterprises are lots characterised by the decentralisation of major power to an additiona l management layer. The al-Qaida(a) menial stage business dissemble’s definitions of the different categories of business may be summarised as set out in mesa 1 below. 222 Table 1:\r\nInternational inquiry ledger of finance and Economics †gist 39 (2010) Definitions of SMMEs given in the National refined byplay Act subjugate of Employees Fewer than 100 to 200, depending on industry Fewer than 50 Annual Turnover (in southbound Afri mass rand) slight than R4 million to R50 million, depending upon industry little than R2 million to R25 million, depending on industry slight than R200 000 to R500 000, depending on industry slight than R150 000 Gross Assets, Excluding Fixed home Less than R2 million to R18 million, depending on industry Less than R2 million to R4. million, depending on industry Less than R150 000 to R500 000, depending on Industry Less than R100 000 enterprise Size Medium little Fewer than 10 to 20, depending on industry Micro Fewer than 5 o rigin: Falkena et al. (2001) Very pocket-sized From the above, two key contrast can be drawn between the definitions of SMEs in Ghana and their counterparts in southmost Africa. First, Act 102 of 1996 defines SMEs in sec Africa whereas on that point is no such jurisprudence in Ghana.\r\nSecondly, the cut off points for the various SME size categories in southeastern Africa are much superior than that of Ghana. This may be a result of the fact that atomic number 16 Africa has a much higher(prenominal) income levels than Ghana. 3. 0. Characteristics of SMEs in ontogeny Countries b lose cat and Reuber (2000) enumerate a number of characteristics of SMEs in developing countries under the broad headings: motor characteristics, sectors of activity, sexual urge of owner and susceptibility. Given that most SMEs are one-person businesses, the largest employment category is working proprietors.\r\nThis group makes up more than fractional the SME workforce in most developing co untries; their families, who flow to be un salaried but sprightly in the enterprise, make up roughly another quarter. The remain portion of the workforce is stop between hired workers and trainees or apprentices. SMEs are more fight intensive than larger firms and in that respectfrom have lower smashing salutes associated with job humans (Anheier and Seibel, 1987; Liedholm and Mead, 1987; Schmitz, 1995). In terms of activity, they are more oft than not tenanted in retailing, trading, or manufacturing (Fisher and Reuber, 2000).\r\nWhile it is a common science that the volume of SMEs give fall into the initial category, the proportion of SME activity that takes place in the retail sector varies considerably between countries, and between rustic and urban regions deep down countries. Retailing is broadly put in in urban regions, magical spell manufacturing can be found in every rural or urban centres. However, the extent of involvement of a country in manufacturin g will depend on a number of factors, including, availability of raw materials, discernment and consumption patterns of domestic consumers, and the level of development of the export markets.\r\nIn Ghana, SMEs can be categorize into urban and rural enterprises. The causality can be subdivided into â€Å" form” and â€Å" uncoordinated” enterprises. The organized ones mostly have paid employees with a registered office, whereas the unorganized category is in general make up of artisans who work in open spaces, temporary woodwinden structures, or at home, and employ few or in roughly cases no salaried workers (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). They rely mostly on family members or apprentices. country-bred enterprises are largely do up of family groups, individual artisans, women engaged in food production from local crops.\r\nThe major activities deep down this sector include:- easy lay and detergents, fabrics, clothing and tailoring, textile and leather, villag e b pretermitsmiths, tin-smithing, ceramics, timber and mining, bricks and cement, beverages, food processing, bakeries, wood furniture, electronic assembly, agro processing, chemical-based products and mechanics (Osei et al. , 1993; Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). absolute majority of SMEs are egg-producing(prenominal)- have businesses, which more often than not are home-based compared to those owned by males; they are operated from home and are mostly not considered in official statistics.\r\nThis intelligibly usurps their chances of gaining irritate to financing schemes, since such International enquiry diary of finance and Economics †Issue 39 (2010) 223 programmes are intentional without sufficient consideration of the inescapably of businesses owned by females. These female entrepreneurs often get the archetype that they are not loose of taking advantage of these belief schemes, because the administrative costs associated with the schemes often outweigh the benefit s. Prior empirical studies in Ghana have shown that female-owned SMEs often have impediment glide slopeing finance.\r\nFemales are mostly have-to doe with in sole-proprietorship businesses which are mainly microenterprises and as such may lack the undeniable confirmative to qualify for loans (Aryeetey et al, 1994; Abor and Biekpe, 2006). Measures of enterprise efficiency (e. g. jab productivity or total factor productivity) vary greatly both within and across industries. Firm size may be associated with whatever other factors that are check with efficiency, such as managerial skill and engine room, and the effects of the policy environment.\r\nMost studies in developing countries indicate that the smallest firms are the least(prenominal) efficient, and there is some say that both small and large firms are relatively uneconomical compared to medium-scale enterprises (Little et al. , 1987). It is often argued that SMEs are more innovative than larger firms. more small fir ms bring innovations to the market place, but the contribution of innovations to productivity often takes time, and larger firms may have more resources to put on and implement them (Acs et al. , 1999). 4. 0. Contributions of SMEs to Economic maturation\r\nThere is a general consensus that the performance of SMEs is important for both economic and social development of developing countries. From the economic perspective, SMEs provide a number of benefits (Advani, 1997). SMEs have been noted to be one of the major areas of concern to mevery policy makers in an act to accelerate the rate of growth in low-income countries. These enterprises have been know as the engines through which the growth objectives of developing countries can be achieved. They are possible sources of employment and income in many developing countries.\r\nSMEs seem to have advantages over their large-scale competitors in that they are able to adapt more easily to market conditions, given their broadly skille d technologies. They are able to withstand adverse economic conditions because of their flexible record (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). SMEs are more labour intensive than larger firms and therefore have lower capital costs associated with job institution (Anheier and Seibel, 1987; Liedholm and Mead, 1987; Schmitz, 1995). They perform useful roles in ensuring income stability, growth and employment.\r\nSince SMEs are labour intensive, they are more authorization to succeed in little urban centres and rural areas, where they can contribute to a more even distribution of economic activity in a region and can help to slow the flow of migration to large cities. Due to their regional public exposure and their labour intensity, it is argued, small-scale production units can promote a more equitable distribution of income than large firms. They also alter the efficiency of domestic markets and make productive use of merely resources, thus facilitating long-term economic growth (Kay anula and Quartey, 2000).\r\nSMEs contribute to a country’s national product by either manufacturing goods of value, or through the planning of services to both consumers and/or other enterprises. This encompasses the provision of products and, to a lesser extent, services to orthogonal clients, thereby contributing to boilers suit export performance. In Ghana and South Africa, SMEs represent a vast portion of businesses. They represent about 92% of Ghanaian businesses and contribute about 70% to Ghana’s GDP and over 80% to employment.\r\nSMEs also account for about 91% of the formal business entities in South Africa, contributing between 52% and 57% of GDP and providing about 61% of employment (CSS, 1998; Ntsika, 1999; Gumede, 2000; Berry et al. , 2002). From an economic perspective, however, enterprises are not just suppliers, but also consumers; this plays an important role if they are able to billet themselves in a market with purchasing power: their hire for industrial or consumer goods will stimulate the activity of their suppliers, just as their own activity is stimulated by the posits of their clients.\r\n involve in the form of enthronization plays a dual role, both from a demand-side (with regard to the suppliers of industrial goods) and on the supplyside (through the potential for unfermented production arising from upgraded equipment). In addition, demand 224 International seek diary of Finance and Economics †Issue 39 (2010) is important to the income-generation potential of SMEs and their ability to stimulate the demand for both consumer and capital goods (Berry et al. , 2002). 5. 0. customary Constraints to SME festering\r\nDespite the potential role of SMEs to accelerated growth and job creation in developing countries, a number of bottlenecks affect their ability to shed light on their full potential. SME development is hampered by a number of factors, including finance, lack of managerial skills, equipment and technology, regulatory issues, and overture to supranational markets (Anheier and Seibel, 1987; Steel and Webster, 1991; Aryeetey et al, 1994; Gockel and Akoena, 2002). The lack of managerial know-how places significant constraints on SME development.\r\nEven though SMEs tend to attract motivated managers, they can hardly compete with larger firms. The scarcity of management talent, plethoric in most countries in the region, has a magnified impact on SMEs. The lack of have got services or their relatively higher unit cost can hamper SMEs’ efforts to improve their management, because consulting firms are often not equipped with appropriate cost-effective management solutions for SMEs. Besides, despite the numerous institutions providing gentility and advisory services, there is still a skills gaolbreak in the SME sector as a whole (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000).\r\nThis is because entrepreneurs cannot give way the high cost of training and advisory services speckle other s do not see the need to upgrade their skills callable to complacency. In terms of technology, SMEs often have tall(prenominal)ies in gaining vex to appropriate technologies and information on available techniques (Aryeetey et al. , 1994). In most cases, SMEs utilize outside(prenominal) technology with a scarce percent of shared ownership or leasing. They usually acquire extraneous licenses, because local patents are difficult to obtain.\r\nRegulatory constraints also pose serious challenges to SME development and although wideranging morphologic reforms have led to some improvements, prospects for enterprise development remain to be addressed at the firm-level. The high start-up costs for firms, including licensing and registration requirements, can impose excessive and unnecessary burdens on SMEs. The high cost of settling legal claims, and excessive delays in court of justice proceedings adversely affect SME operations. In the case of Ghana, the cumbersome procedure for r egistering and commencing business are key issues often cited.\r\nThe creative activity affirm Doing Business spread over (2006) indicated that it takes 127 days to deal with licensing issues and there are 16 procedures concern in licensing a business in Ghana. It takes longer (176 days) in South Africa and there were 18 procedures elusive in transaction with licensing issues. Meanwhile, the absence of antitrust legislation favours larger firms, while the lack of protection for property rights limits SMEs’ access to foreign technologies (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000).\r\nPreviously insulated from worldwide competition, many SMEs are now faced with greater orthogonal competition and the need to turn out market share. However, their limited international marketing experience, poor quality control and product standardisation, and little access to international partners, continue to impede SMEs’ expansion into international markets (Aryeetey et al. , 1994). They als o lack the necessary information about foreign markets. One important problem that SMEs often face is access to capital (Lader, 1996).\r\nLack of fitted monetary resources places significant constraints on SME development. Cook and Nixson (2000) observe that, unless the recognition of the role of SMEs in the development process in many developing countries, SMEs development is evermore constrained by the limited availability of fiscal resources to meet a concoction of operational and investment needs. A public money box study found that about 90% of small enterprises surveyed stated that honorable mention was a major constraint to new investment (Parker et al. , 1995).\r\n charge (1993) also found that there is limited access to financial resources available to smaller enterprises compared to larger organisations and the consequences for their growth and development. The role of finance has been viewed as a censorious element for the development of SMEs (Cook and Nixson, 2 000). A large portion of the SME sector does not have access to adequate and appropriate forms of cite and equity, or indeed to financial services more generally (Parker et al. , 1995). In competing for the corporate market, formal financial institutions have merged their products to serve the needs of large corporates.\r\nInternational Research Journal of Finance and Economics †Issue 39 (2010) 225 A cursory analysis of survey and research results of SMEs in South Africa, for instance, reveals common reactions from SME owners interviewed. When asked what they perceive as constraints in their businesses and especially in establishing or expanding their businesses, they answered that access to specie is a major constraint. This is reflected in perception questions answered by SME owners in many surveys (see BEES, 1995; Graham and Quattara, 1996; Rwingema and Karungu, 1999).\r\nThis situation is not different in the case of Ghana (see Sowa et al. , 1992; Aryeetey, 1998; Bigste n et al. , 2000, Abor and Biekpe 2006, 2007; Quartey, 2002). A priori, it magnate seem surprising that finance should be so important. Requirements such as identifying a product and a market, acquiring any necessary property rights or licenses, and charge proper records are all in some sense more primaeval to running a small enterprise than is finance (Green et al. , 2002). Some studies have consequently shown that a large number of small enterprises fail because of non-financial reasons.\r\nOther constraints SMEs face include: lack of access to appropriate technology; the existence of laws, regulations and rules that impede the development of the sector; weak institutional content and lack of management skills and training (see Sowa et al. , 1992; Aryeetey et al. , 1994; Parker et al. , 1995; Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). However, potential providers of finance, whether formal or escaped, are unlikely to return funds to a business which they view as not being on a sound footin g, irrespective of the pick out nature of the unsoundness.\r\nLack of funds may be the neighboring(a) reason for a business failing to start or to progress, even when the more primitive reason lies elsewhere. Finance is said to be the â€Å"glue” that holds together all the diverse aspects problematic in small business start-up and development (Green et al. , 2002). 6. 0. Conclusion This paper has reviewed various definitions of SMEs and also discussed the characteristics, contributions of SMEs to economic development, and the constraints to SME development. In reviewing the definitions of SMEs, it was concluded that there is no single, universal, uniformly congenial definition of SMEs.\r\nSeveral measures or indicators have been used to define the SME sector. The most commonly used is the number of employees of the enterprise. However, in applying this definition, mix-up often arises in respect of the arbitrariness and cut-off points used by various official sources. The definitions of SMEs within the context of Ghana and South Africa were also examined, given that this paper focuses on these two countries. SMEs often fall into two categories, that is, urban and rural enterprises. The former can be sub-divided into â€Å"organized” and â€Å"unorganized” enterprises.\r\nThe organized groups have registered offices and paid workers, whilst the unorganized ones are mainly made up of artisans. pastoral enterprises are largely made up of family groups and individual artisans. The activities in the SME sector range from pottery and ceramics to manufacturing of spare parts and electronic assembly. SMEs in Ghana and South Africa have a lot of similarities in terms of their characteristics as well as the critical role they play in the two economies. However, they differ in terms of size and regulation.\r\nFor instance, the cut off point for the various categories of SMEs in Ghana are much lower than they come to in South Africa. Secondl y, whereas a national legislation defines an SME in South Africa, no such Act exist in Ghana. The study also spy that SMEs constitute a racy element of the development process, and their contributions in terms of production, employment and income in developing countries is widely recognized. Hence, take in the role of SMEs in the development process continues to be high on the order of business of policy makers in the two countries.\r\nNotwithstanding the recognition, the development of SMEs is always constrained by a number of factors such as, lack of access to appropriate technology, limited access to international markets, the existence of laws, regulations and rules that impede the development of the sector; weak institutional capacity and lack of management skills and training. However, access to finance remains the superlative concern for the majority of SMEs. This study suggests that, to improve access to credit to SMEs, entrepreneurs should be encouraged to form coopera tives since financial institutions believe mate pressure often reduces the fortune 26 International Research Journal of Finance and Economics †Issue 39 (2010) of default, Secondly, the government through tax incentives can encourage certain training institutions and NGOs to provide training to entrepreneurs on simple record keeping and managerial know-how. Also, a national legislation in Ghana to define what constitutes an SME and their legal as well as tax obligations will help to mingle a number of informal enterprises into the formal framework. This should be complemented with steps to minimize the legal procedures involved in doing business in both countries.\r\nIt is also suggested that technology transfer through simple, flashy and adaptable technology should be promoted to enhance the productivity of SMEs. References [1] [2] Abor, J. and N. Biekpe, 2006. â€Å" thin Business Financing Initiatives in Ghana”, Problems and Perspectives in Management, 4(3), pp. 69- 77. Abor, J. and N. Biekpe, 2006. â€Å"SMEs’ entry to Debt Finance: A coincidence of Male-Owned and Female-Owned Businesses in Ghana”, International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation, 7(2), pp. 105-112. Abor, J. and N. Biekpe, 2007. scurvy Business Reliance on intrust Financing in Ghana”, Emerging Market Finance & Trade, 43(4), pp. 93 †102. Acs, Z. , R. Morck, and B. Young, 1999. â€Å"Productivity appendage and Size Distribution”, in Acs, Z. , Carlsson, B. and Karlsson, C. (eds. ), Entrepreneurship, Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises and the Macroeconomy, Cambridge University Press. Advani, A. 1997. â€Å"industrial Clusters: A Support System for Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises”, underground celestial sphere tuition, universe of discourse Bank Occasional piece No. 32, valet de chambre Bank, Washigton, DC. Anheier, H. K. and H. D. Seibel, 1987. Small outstrip Industries and Economic nurture in Ghana”, Busine ss Behaviour and Strategies in loose Sector Economies, Verlag Breitenbech, Saarbruckh, Germany. Aryeetey, E. 1998. â€Å" casual Finance for Private Sector victimization in Africa”, Economic Research newspapers No. 41, The African Development Bank, Abidjan. Aryeetey, E. 2001. â€Å"Priority Research Issues Relating to Regulation and Competition in Ghana”, nerve centre on Regulation and Competition working makeup Series, University of Manchester, Manchester. Aryeetey, E. , A. Baah-Nuakoh, T. Duggleby, H. Hettige, and W. F.\r\nSteel, 1994. â€Å"Supply and aim for Finance of Small cuticle Enterprises in Ghana”, banter piece of music No. 251, World Bank, Washington, DC. BEES, 1995. Guide to the Preliminary Results of the ERU / BEES SME trace. Berry, A. , M. von Blottnitz, R. Cassim, A. Kesper, B. Rajaratnam, and D. E. van Seventer, 2002. â€Å"The Economics of SMMEs in South Africa”, Trade and industrial form _or_ system of government Strategies, Johannesburg, South Africa. Bigsten, A. , P. Collier, S. Dercon, M. Fafchamps, B. Guthier, J. W. Gunning, M. Soderbom, A. Oduro, R. Oostendorp, C. Patillo, F. Teal, A. Zeufack, 2000. mention Constraints in Manufacturing Enterprises in Africa”, Working musical composition WPS/2000. Centre for the study of African Economies, Oxford University, Oxford. Bolton, J. E. 1971. â€Å"Report of the Committee of interrogation on Small Firms”, HMSO, London. Cook, P. and F. Nixson, 2000. â€Å"Finance and Small and Medium-Sized Enterprise Development”, IDPM, University of Manchester, Finance and Development Research create mentally Working Paper Series, Paper No 14. CSS, 1998. â€Å" utilisation and Unemployment in South Africa 1994-1997”, South Africa. segment of Trade and Industry, 2001.\r\nSmall and Medium Enterprise (SME) †Definitions, http://www. dti. gov. uk/SME4/define. htm. Elaian, K. 1996. habit Implications of Small Scale Industries in Developing Countries: yard from Jordan, Science, applied science and Development, 14(1), pp. 80-101. [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] International Research Journal of Finance and Economics †Issue 39 (2010) [18] 227 [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28] [29] [30] [31] [32] [33] [34] [35] [36] [37] Falkena, H. , I. Abedian, M. Blottnitz, C. Coovadia, G. Davel, J.\r\nMadungandaba, E. Masilela, and S. Rees, S. , 2001. â€Å"SMEs’ Access to Finance in South Africa, A Supply-Side Regulatory Review”, The tax Group of the policy Board for monetary Services and Regulation, www. finance. gov. za/documents/smes. Feeney, L. S. and A. L. Riding, 1997. Business Owners’ Fundamental Tradeoff: Finance and the Vicious Circle of emergence and Control, Canadian Business Owner, November. Fisher, E. and R. Reuber, 2000. â€Å"industrial Clusters and SME Promotion in Developing Countries”, Commonwealth Trade and Enterprise Paper No. 3. Gockel, A. G. and S. K. Akoena, 2002. Financial Intermediation for the Poor: Credit Demand by Micro, Small and Medium Scale Enterprises in Ghana. A Further date for Financial Sector constitution? ”, IFLIP Research Paper 02-6, International Labour Organisation. Graham, D. and K. Quattara, 1996. Report on Rural Finance in Two Provinces in South Africa, Prepared for the Development Bank of Southern Africa. Green, C. J. , P. Kimuyu, R. Manos, and V. Murinde, 2002. â€Å"How do Small Firms in Developing Countries foster Capital? express from a Large-Scale Survey of Kenyan Micro and Small Scale Enterprises”, Economic Research Paper No. 2/6, Centre for International, Financial and Economics Research, Department of Economics, Loughborough University. Gumede, V. 2000. â€Å"Growth and exportinging of Small and Medium Enterprises in South Africa, Some Thoughts on form _or_ system of government and Scope for Further Research”, Trade and Industrial polity Strategi es, South Africa. Hassbroeck, D. 1996. â€Å"Entrepreneurship Training for the Informal Sector in South Africa, in Educating Entrepreneurs in Modernising Economies”, Aldershot, Hants: Avebury. Jordan, J. , J. Lowe, and P. Taylor, 1998. â€Å" dodging and Financial form _or_ system of government in U. K. Small Firms”, Journal of Business Finance and Accounting, 25(1/2), pp. â€27. Kayanula, D. and P. Quartey, 2000. â€Å"The form _or_ system of government surroundings for Promoting Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises in Ghana and Malawi”, Finance and Development Research Programme, Working Paper Series, Paper No 15, IDPM, University of Manchester. Lader, P. 1996. â€Å"The Public/Private Partnership”, Springs Spring, 35(2), pp. 41-44. Levy, B. , A. Berry, and J. Nugent, 1999. â€Å"Supporting the Export Activities of Small and Medium Enterprise (SME)”, in Levy, B. , Berry, A. and Nugent, J. B. (eds. ), Fulfilling the Export potential of Small a nd medium Firms, Boston, MA, Kluwer academician Publishers. Liedholm, C. and D. Mead, 1987. Small Scale Industries in Developing Countries: Empirical try out and Policy Implications”, International Development Paper No. 9, Department of Agricultural Economics, Michigan body politic University, East Lansing, MI, USA. Little, I. M. , D. Mazumdar, and J. M. Page, 1987. â€Å"Small Manufacturing Enterprises: A Comparative Analysis of India and Other Economies”, cutting York, Oxford University Press. Lopez, G. J. and A. C. Aybar, 2000. â€Å"An Empirical greet to the Financial Behaviour of Small and Medium Sized Companies”, Small Business Economics, 14, pp. 55-63. Michaelas, N. , F. Chittenden, and P. Poutziouris, 1999. Financial Policy and Capital Structure prize in U. K. SMEs: Empirical Evidence from Company Panel data”, Small Business Economics, 12, 113-130. Millinuex, A. W. 1997. â€Å"The keep of Non-Financial Corporations (NFCs) in the EU (1971199 3): Evidence of Convergence”, Mimeo, Department of Economics, University of Birmingham. Ntsika, 1999. â€Å" res publica of Small Business in South Africa”, SARB Quarterly Bulletins; and Stats SA Releases, South Africa. OECD, 1997. Globalisation and Small and Medium Enterprises, Synthesis Report, Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development. Osei, B. , A. Baah-Nuakoh, K. A. Tutu, and N. K. Sowa, 1993. Impact of Structural version on Small-Scale Enterprises in Ghana”, in Helmsing, A. H. J. and Kolstee, T. H. 228 International Research Journal of Finance and Economics †Issue 39 (2010) (eds. ), Structural valuation reserve, Financial Policy and Assistance Programmes in Africa, IT Publications, London. Parker, R. , R. Riopelle, and W. Steel, 1995. â€Å"Small Enterprises Adjusting to Liberalisation in basketball team African Countries”, World Bank Discussion Paper, No 271, African Technical Department Series, The World Bank, Washington DC. Quar tey, P. 2002. â€Å"Financing Small and Medium-sized Enterprises in Ghana”, Journal of African Business, 4, pp. 7-56. Rwingema, H. and P. Karungu, 1999. â€Å"SMME Development in Johannesburg’s Southern metropolitan Local Council: An Assessment” Development Southern Africa 16(1). Schmitz, H. 1995. â€Å"Collective efficiency: Growth Path for Small Scale Industry”, The Journal of Development Studies, 31(4), pp. 529-566. Sowa, N. K. , A. Baah-Nuakoh, K. A. Tutu, and B. Osei, 1992. â€Å"Small Enterprise and Adjustment, The Impact of Ghana’s Economic Recovery Programme on Small-Scale Industrial Enterprises”, Research Reports, Overseas Development Institute, 111 Westminster Bridge Road, London SE1 7JD.\r\nSteel, W. F. and L. M. Webster, 1991. â€Å"Small Enterprises in Ghana: Responses to Adjustment Industry”, Series Paper, No. 33, The World Bank Industry and Energy Department, Washington DC. Storey, D. , 1994. â€Å" brain the Small Bu siness Sector”, Routledge, London. Teal, F. , 2002. â€Å"Background Information On Use Of Dataset: Regional Project On Enterprise Development (RPED) Ghana Manufacturing Sector Survey Waves I-V (1992-98)”, Centre for the Study of African Economies, Institute of Economics and Statistics, University of Oxford, St. broom Building, Manor Road, Oxford, OX1 3UL.\r\nUNIDO, 1983. The Potential for Resource-based Industrial Development in the least Developed Countries’, No. 5 †Malawi. UNIDO, 1999. SMEs in Africa Survive against all Odds, http://www. unido. org/doc/view? document_id=3927&language_code=en. new wave der Wijst, D. , 1989. â€Å"Financial Structure in Small Business. Theory, Tests and Applications”, Lecture Notes in Economics and Mathematical Systems, Vol. 320, unseasoned York: Springer-Verlag. Weston, J. F. and Copeland, T. E. , 1998. â€Å"Managerial Finance”, CBS College Publishing, New York. [38] [39] [40] [41] [42] [43] [44] [45 ] [46] [47] [48] [49]\r\n'